Orientation on the terrain using a topographic map. Orientation on the terrain using a map (scheme): methods of orienting a map (scheme), the procedure for identifying landmarks, determining your location, comparing the map (scheme) with the terrain. Orientation

The map is to determine the point of your location. Various methods can be used for this. By local objects, by nearest landmarks by eye, by measuring the distance traveled, by resection by landmarks, by resection by at least two landmarks.

The easiest way to determine your location is by local objects. When you are close to something shown on the map (road intersection, separate stone, characteristic forest ledge, etc.). The location of the symbol on the map will indicate the desired point of our standing.

Determining your location by the nearest landmarks by eye is the simplest and main way to approximately determine your standing point on the map. In this case, the map needs to identify one or two landmarks on it and on the ground. Then they determine by eye their location relative to these landmarks on the ground and plot their location on the map.

For example, having stopped in an open area, you noticed that in the direction of your movement you can see, and to the left at a right angle, a turning pole of the communication line. Having oriented the map, you found on it the image of a tree and the angle of rotation of the communication line. Then, having determined by eye that the tree is approximately 400 meters away from you, and the angle of rotation of the communication line is at a distance of 200 meters. Let's plot these distances on the map so that there is approximately a right angle between them. You will find your location on the map.

This method is used when driving along a road, path, clearing or along any other terrain line indicated on the map (river bank, forest edge, communication line, etc.). And also when moving in a straight line in any particular direction. For example, to a distant landmark, and in poor visibility conditions - in a given direction.

It is especially useful in poor visibility conditions. In closed or poor terrain. Having started moving from any object identified on the ground and on the map (bridge, crossroads, edge of the forest, etc.), you count your steps. In this case, your location point can always be determined by plotting on the map scale the distance you have traveled from the starting point in a given direction of movement.

For example, having walked along the road 200 meters from the bridge in the direction of the trigonometric point, the tourist stopped. Having plotted the distance traveled from the bridge, he received his location on the topographic map.

This method is most suitable for open areas. Or in good visibility conditions. When driving along a road or along any landmark, marking your location is carried out as follows.

We orient the map and identify on it a landmark visible on the ground from a given point. Then we place a ruler or pencil on the map to the image of this landmark. Without confusing the orientation of the map, we rotate it around the symbol. The point of intersection of the line of sight along the ruler with the image of the road on which we are located will be the desired point of our location on the map.

Determining our location is simplified if the selected landmark is perpendicular to the direction of movement. Or in alignment with some other landmark. Also marked on the map and visible from this point. Then the desired point of our location on the map is determined by the intersection of the road on which we are located with a straight line drawn through the landmark perpendicular to the line of our movement.

In the second case - with a straight line passing through both landmarks forming the target. When drawing these lines, you do not even need to orient the map or sight the landmarks using a ruler.

When driving off roads and along areas not marked on the map, your location is determined by resecting at least two landmarks. To do this, find on the ground in different directions, at an angle of at least 30 degrees from each other and no more than 150 degrees, two local objects that are on the map.

The topographic map is oriented along, and then one by one sights at each landmark and draws directions from the landmarks toward oneself along a ruler. The intersection of these directions on the map will be our location.

Based on materials from the book “Map and Compass are My Friends.”
Klimenko A.I.

The standing point can be determined on the map in various ways: by the nearest landmarks by eye, by measuring the distance traveled, by notching. The method for determining the standing point is selected taking into account the available time, environmental conditions and the required accuracy.

Finding your location according to the nearest landmarks by eye. This is the most common method. On an oriented map, one or two local objects visible on the ground are identified, then they visually determine their location relative to these objects in the directions and distances to them and mark the point of their standing (Fig. 66).

If the standing point on the ground is located next to any local object or its characteristic bend (turn) shown on the map, then the location of the symbol (turning point) of this object will coincide with the desired standing point.

Measuring the distance. This method is most often used when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along a road, clearing, etc.), as well as when moving in azimuth. At the starting point, they record the speedometer reading and start moving. When determining your location, you should plot on the map the distance traveled from the starting point to the stopping point. If the movement is made on foot or on skis, the distance traveled is measured in steps or determined by the time of movement.

In the direction of the landmark and the distance to it the standing point can be determined if only one landmark is identified on the ground and on the map. In this case, on an oriented map, a ruler is applied to the symbol of an identified landmark, it is sighted at a landmark on the ground, a straight line is drawn along the edge of the ruler and the distance from the landmark is marked on it. The point obtained on the line of sight will be the desired standing point.

On target. A target is a straight line passing through the standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).

If the vehicle is on the target line, its location on the map can be determined in one of the following ways:

Along the alignment and linear reference (Fig. 67). If we are on a linear landmark (road) and in alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the symbols of local objects (landmarks), in alignment with which there is a standing point on the ground, until it intersects with the road. The point of intersection of the target line with the road will be the desired standing point;

Along the target and lateral landmark. In the figure shown. In the 68 example, the target is the direction of the street of the settlement. To determine the standing point, orient the map along the target line, and then, applying a ruler to a side landmark (a separate tree), sight it and draw a straight line until it intersects with the target line. At the intersection of the target line with the line of sight to the landmark there will be a standing point;

By measured distance. A target line is drawn on the map. Then determine the distance to the nearest landmark located on the target line, and plot this distance on a drawn straight line (from the landmark towards you). The point obtained on the straight line will be the standing point.

serif The standing point is determined subject to a good overview of the area and the presence of local objects and landforms on it that can serve as reliable landmarks.

According to the lateral landmark (Fig. 69), a notch is made, as a rule, when moving along the road or along some linear landmark. While on the road, they orientate the map, identify on it the image of an object (landmark) that is clearly visible on the ground, apply the sight line to the symbol of the landmark and sight it. Then, without changing the position of the ruler, draw a straight line on the map until it intersects with the conventional road sign. The intersection of the drawn line with the conventional road sign will be the desired standing point.

In this way, they most accurately determine their location on the map if the direction to a lateral landmark intersects with the direction of movement at a right angle. This case is called perpendicular notching.

Using two or three landmarks (Fig. 70), a survey is most often carried out when your location is not indicated on the map. The map is oriented using a compass and two or three landmarks shown on the map are identified on the ground. Then, as in the previous case, they sight one by one at the selected landmarks and draw directions from the landmarks towards themselves along the ruler. All these directions must intersect at one point, which will be the standing point. This type of serif is often called a back serif.

Notching using measured (constructed) angles (Fig. 71) (Bolotov’s method) is performed in the following sequence:

Using a tower inclinometer or another method, such as a compass, measure the horizontal angles between three landmarks selected around the standing point and clearly depicted on the map;

Construct the measured angles on transparent paper with a randomly drawn point taken as the standing point; these angles can also be constructed by direct sighting using a ruler at selected landmarks on the ground;

Place the paper on the map so that each direction drawn on it passes through the symbol of the landmark to which it was drawn when sighting or plotted according to the measured angles;

Having combined all the directions with the corresponding symbols of landmarks, they pin the point marked on a sheet of paper at which the directions were drawn onto the map. This point will be the standing point.

At reverse directional angles (Fig. 72), notching is most often performed in situations where it is impossible to openly work with the map on the ground. In this case, return azimuths are measured with a compass from the standing point to two or three point landmarks visible on the ground and identified on the map. The values of back azimuths are counted on the compass scale against the pointer located at the rear sight. The measured azimuths are converted to directional angles (see Section 5.3). Then, having constructed these angles with the corresponding landmarks on the map, they draw the directions until they intersect with each other. The point of intersection of the directions will be the standing point.

When determining the standing point using any method of notching, you should choose directions so that they intersect at an angle of no less than 30 and no more than 150°. In all possible cases, check the position of the resulting standing point by sighting on an additional local object (landmark). If a triangle is formed at the intersection of three directions, the standing point is placed in its center. If the triangle is large, when its side is more than 2 mm, the notch must be repeated, having first checked the accuracy of the map orientation.

Orientation on the terrain using a map (scheme): methods of orienting a map (scheme), the procedure for identifying landmarks, determining your location, comparing the map (scheme) with the terrain

Find your bearings- this means finding the direction of the sides of the horizon (cardinal points) - north, south, west, east; determine your location relative to surrounding local objects and landforms; find the desired direction of movement and maintain this direction along the way.

Methods for orienting a map (scheme)

The process of orientation on the map is carried out in 3 stages:

Orientation of the map itself;

Determining your location using a map;

Comparison of the map with the terrain.

The orientation of the map consists of giving it such a position in the horizontal plane in which the north side of the map frame faces north, and all directions on the map are parallel to the corresponding directions on the ground.

Rice. 1 Map orientation along the terrain line

Rice. 2 Direction orientation

The map can be navigated:

Along terrain lines (Fig. 1);

In directions to a landmark (Fig. 2);

By compass (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Orientation of the map by compass: a - Orientation along the kilometer grid line; b - orientation along the map frame

If the observer is located on any linear landmark (highway or railroad, power line, etc.), then orientation is easiest to carry out along the terrain line(Fig. 1). To do this, the map is rotated so that the image of this linear object on the map coincides with the direction of the object on the ground and all local objects located to the right and left of the linear landmark on the map are located, respectively, to the right and left on the ground.

Orienting the map towards a landmark(Fig. 2) is used in the case when the location point on the map is known and some landmark indicated on the map is visible from this point.

To do this, the map is oriented so that the direction “standing point - landmark”, mentally (or using a ruler) oriented on the map, coincides with the corresponding direction on the ground.

Orienting the map using a compass(Fig. 3) is carried out in a closed area, poor in landmarks. The compass is applied to one of the vertical lines of the map (to the kilometer grid line (Fig. 3, a) or to the map frame (Fig. 3, b)) so that the line connecting the north-south mark on the compass coincides with selected vertical line on the map. In this case, the “north” mark on the compass should be directed towards the northern (upper) end of the map.

Then the hag together with the compass is turned in a horizontal plane so that the upper side of the map frame coincides with the north direction of the magnetic needle, and the magnetic needle should deviate from the zero value (the “north” mark) by the amount of the correction.

If the compass is applied to the direction of the true meridian (map frame), then the correction will be the angle of magnetic declination, but if the compass is applied to the vertical grid line, then the correction is added (algebraically) from the angle of convergence of the meridians γ and the angle of magnetic declination δ.

If the correction is positive, then the compass needle should be located to the right of the “north” mark by the amount of this correction, but if it is negative, then to the left.

Finding your location

The easiest way to determine your location on the map is to be near any landmark on the ground that is shown on the map (road intersection, bridge, isolated tree, etc.). The location of this symbol on the map will be the desired point.

In all other cases, your location can be approximately determined in one of the following ways:

According to the nearest landmarks to the eye (Fig. 4);

By measuring the distance traveled (Fig. 5);

Serif on a local subject (Fig. 6);

Back serif (Fig. 7), etc.

Rice. 4. Determination of the standing point on the map by eye using the nearest landmarks

Rice. 5. Determining the standing point by measuring distances

Rice. 6. Determination of the standing point by a notch on a local subject

Rice. 7. Determination of the standing point by resection

The procedure for identifying landmarks and comparing the map (scheme) with the terrain

To compare a map with the terrain means to find on the map an image of the surrounding local objects and relief elements and vice versa - to identify the objects on the ground indicated on the map.

When orienting to the battlefield, special attention must be paid to identifying local objects and relief details in relation to which the unit’s combat missions are linked.

In order to find an image of an observed object on a map, you need to determine the distance to the object, and then determine the direction to the object (azimuth or angle between the known direction and the object). After this, drawing the obtained direction from the point of your standing on the map and plotting the resulting distance on the map scale, find an image of the object in this area.

To solve the inverse problem, i.e. in order to identify an object on the ground, you should:

Orient the map;

Find your location;

Determine the distance to the object from the map;

Determine the directional angle and magnetic azimuth of the object and, using this data, solve the problem.

When comparing the terrain with a map, it is necessary not only to identify the observed local objects, but also to carefully understand the structure of the relief in order to use its characteristic shapes and details as landmarks. To do this, it is necessary to identify command heights and find watershed lines, as well as determine the relative position of the most characteristic relief elements.

After this, you need to turn to the map and identify on it the forms and details of the relief observed on the ground.

When you are in an unfamiliar area, especially if the map is not detailed enough with a conditional coordinate reference or with no such reference at all, it becomes necessary to navigate by eye, determining the distance to the target in various ways. For experienced travelers and hunters, determining distances is carried out not only with the help of many years of practice and skills, but also with a special tool - a rangefinder. Using this equipment, a hunter can accurately determine the distance to an animal in order to kill it with one shot. The distance is measured with a laser beam, the device runs on rechargeable batteries. By using this device on a hunt or under other circumstances, the ability to determine distance by eye is gradually developed, since when using it, the real value and the reading of the laser rangefinder are always compared. Next, methods for determining distances without the use of special equipment will be described.

Determining distances on the ground is carried out in a variety of ways. Some of them fall into the category of sniper or military reconnaissance methods. In particular, when navigating the area, an ordinary tourist may find the following useful:

Measuring in steps

This method is often used to draw maps of the area. Typically, steps are counted in pairs. A mark is made after every pair or three steps, after which the distance in meters is calculated. To do this, the number of pairs or triples of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or triple.

Angle measurement method.

All objects are visible from certain angles. Knowing this angle, you can measure the distance between the object and the observer. Considering that 1 cm from a distance of 57 cm is visible at an angle of 1 degree, we can take the thumbnail of the hand extended forward, equal to 1 cm (1 degree), as the standard for measuring this angle. The entire index finger is a 10 degree reference. Other standards are summarized in a table that will help you navigate the measurement. Knowing the angle, you can determine the length of the object: if it is covered by your thumbnail, then it is at an angle of 1 degree. Therefore, the distance from the observer to the object is approximately 60 m.

By a flash of light

The difference between the flash of light and the sound is determined using a stopwatch. From this the distance is calculated. Typically, this is calculated by finding a firearm.

By speedometer
By time speed
By match

Divisions equal to 1 mm are applied to the match. Holding it in your hand, you need to pull it forward, hold it horizontally, while closing one eye, then combine one end of it with the top of the object being identified. After this, you need to move your thumbnail to the base of the object and calculate the distance using the formula: the distance to the object, equal to its height, divided by the distance from the observer’s eyes to the match, equal to the marked number of divisions on the match.

The method of determining the distance on the ground using the thumb helps to calculate the location of both a moving and a stationary object. To calculate, you need to stretch your hand forward and raise your thumb up. You need to close one eye, and if the target moves from left to right, the left eye closes and vice versa. At the moment when the target closes with your finger, you need to close the other eye, opening the one that was closed. In this case, the object will be moved back. Now you need to count the time (or steps, if the person is being observed) until the object is covered with your finger again. The distance to the target is calculated simply: the amount of time (or steps of the pedestrian) before closing the finger a second time, multiplied by 10. The resulting value is converted into meters.

The eye distance recognition method is the simplest, but requires practice. This is the most common method because it does not require the use of any devices. There are several ways to visually determine the distance to a target: by segments of terrain, the degree of visibility of the object, as well as its approximate size, which appears to the eye. To train your eye, you need to practice by comparing the apparent distance to the target with double-checking on a map or steps (you can use a pedometer). With this method, it is important to fix in memory certain standards of distance measures (50,100,200,300 meters), which are then mentally laid down on the ground, and estimate the approximate distance, comparing the real value and the reference value. Consolidating specific distance segments in memory also requires practice: for this you need to remember the usual distance from one object to another. It should be taken into account that the length of the segment decreases with increasing distance to it.

The degree of visibility and distinguishability of objects affects the setting of the distance to them with the naked eye. There is a table of maximum distances, based on which you can imagine the approximate distance to an object that can be seen by a person with normal visual acuity. This method is designed for an approximate, individual determination of the distances of objects. So, if, in accordance with the table, a person’s facial features become distinguishable from a hundred meters, this means that in reality the distance to him is not exactly 100 m, and no more. For a person with low visual acuity, it is necessary to make individual adjustments regarding the reference table.

When establishing the distance to an object using an eye meter, the following features should be taken into account:

Brightly lit objects, as well as objects marked with bright colors, appear closer to their true distance. This should be taken into account if you notice a fire, fire or distress signal. The same applies to large objects. Small ones seem smaller.
At twilight, on the contrary, all objects seem further away. A similar situation occurs during fog.
After rain, in the absence of dust, the target always seems closer than it actually is.
If the sun is in front of the observer, the desired target will appear closer than it actually is. If it is located behind, the distance to the desired target is greater.
A target located on a flat bank will always appear closer than one located on a hilly one. This is explained by the fact that uneven terrain conceals the distance.
When looking down from a high point, objects will appear closer than when looking at them from below.
Objects located on a dark background always seem further away than on a light background.
The distance to an object appears shorter if there are very few observed targets in the field of view.

It should be remembered that the greater the distance to the target being determined, the more likely an error in the calculations is. In addition, the more trained the eye is, the higher the accuracy of calculations can be achieved.

Sound guidance

In cases where it is impossible to determine the distance to the target by eye, for example, in conditions of poor visibility, very rough terrain or at night, you can navigate by sounds. This ability must also be trained. Identification of target range by sounds is determined by various weather conditions:

The clear sound of human speech can be heard from afar on a quiet summer night, if the space is open. Audibility can reach 500m.
Speech, steps, and various sounds are clearly audible on a frosty winter or autumn night, as well as foggy weather. In the latter case, it is difficult to determine the direction of the object, since the sound is clear but diffuse.
In a windless forest and over calm water, sounds travel very quickly, and the rain greatly muffles them.
Dry soil transmits sound better than air, especially at night.

To determine the location of the target, there is a table corresponding to the range of audibility and the nature of the sound. If you use it, you can focus on the most common objects in each area (screams, steps, sounds of vehicles, shots, conversations, etc.).

Navigate the area using a map – consists of determining one’s location (standing point) on a map, identifying surrounding local objects and relief details by comparing the area with its image on the map, as well as establishing the location of objects of interest to us relative to identified points and landmarks.

The essence of orientation consist of three main elements:

Identification of the area you are in by
its known signs and landmarks;

Determination of location (your own and objects of interest);

Finding and determining directions on the ground. Orientation on a map consists of orienting the map, determining your location on it (standing point) and comparing the map with the terrain.

Orienting the map consists of giving it a position in the horizontal plane in which all directions on it would be parallel to the corresponding directions on the ground, and the upper (northern) side of its frame faces north.

The map is oriented mainly along terrain lines and landmarks (Fig. 19 a, b). Only where they are absent or not visible, the map is oriented using a compass.

The map can be oriented approximately - by eye or accurately - using a ruler and a compass.

Orientation of the map along terrain lines is carried out in the presence of straight sections of road, communication lines, etc. To do this, rotate the map so that the image of a linear sign on the map coincides with this object on the terrain, and the images of all other objects located to the right and left of this lines were on the same sides on the map.

Rice. 19 a.Orienting the map in the direction of the road.

If the point of our standing on the map is known (for example, at a crossroads, at a bridge, etc.), then the map can be oriented towards any landmark indicated on the map and visible on the ground. To do this, apply a ruler to two points on the map (a separate stone is a location point, a bridge is a landmark) and, sighting along the ruler, turn with the map so that the selected landmark is at the end of the line of sight farthest from you.

Rice. 19 b.Orienting the map in the direction of a landmark.

Orientation of the map by compass is done as follows:

a) install the compass on the map so that the line 0°-180° coincides with the vertical line of the coordinate grid, and the zero is directed to the north side of the frame;

b) turn the map with a compass installed on it until the northern end of the arrow approaches the division corresponding to the direction correction value. If the correction is less than 3°, then it is not taken into account.

Rice. 20 . Orienting the map using a compass.

Determining your standing point on the map is done in various ways.

According to the nearest landmarks by eye- the simplest and most common way to approximately determine the point of your standing. Having oriented the map and identified two or three nearby landmarks on it and on the ground, they determine by eye their location relative to these landmarks and plot their point of standing on the map in accordance with this. (see Fig. 21)

Rice. 21. Determining the standing point by the nearest landmarks by eye.

Measuring the distance traveled- determine the point of your standing in conditions of poor visibility. In this case, the point of one’s standing is determined by plotting on a map on a scale the distance traveled from the initial landmark identified on the ground and on the map in any specific direction.

They use serifs based on landmarks in open areas. When driving along a road or along any linear object, they orient the map and identify on it a landmark visible on the ground. Then they apply a ruler on the map to the image of this landmark and, without disrupting the orientation of the map, direct the ruler and the landmark, turning it around the selected symbol; the point of intersection of the line of sight with the image of the road will be the desired standing point.

Rice. 22. Serif according to landmarks .

They use pencil sighting in open areas. When driving along a road or along any linear object, they orient the map and identify on it a landmark visible on the ground. We place the pencil vertically on the symbol of the identified landmark, without changing the position of the map, draw a sighting line through the landmark and pencil, and mark our standing point on the linear object. (See Figure 23.)

Rice. 23. Sighting with a pencil

Determining the standing point is simplified if the selected landmark is on a line perpendicular to the direction of movement, or in alignment with some other landmark, also marked on the map and visible on the ground (Fig. 24).

When moving in directions not indicated on the map, determining your standing point is done by notching at least two landmarks (the third is for control). Having oriented the map according to the compass, they identify the selected landmarks on the map, then, as in the previous case, they sight each of them in turn and draw directions from the landmarks towards themselves along a ruler. The intersection of these lines on the map will be the standing point. These methods are called resection methods (Fig. 25).

The most important task of orienteering is to find and maintain the desired direction of movement in any conditions.

Directions on the ground are determined by horizontal angles formed with any direction established or marked on the ground, taken as the initial direction. They are measured in degrees or in protractor divisions.

Initial, or, as it is otherwise called, guiding, the direction can be any direction passing through the point of our standing and some distant terrain object clearly visible from it - reference point. When orienting along the sides of the horizon, the reference direction is taken north direction of the magnetic meridian. It is determined by a compass, and in the absence of a device - approximately, by eye, by celestial bodies and various signs. Directions relative to the magnetic meridian are determined by magnetic azimuths.

Magnetic azimuth is the horizontal angle measured clockwise (from 0° to 360°) from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the determined direction

The task of orientation is not limited to just finding and maintaining the direction of movement, but is organically included as an integral and initial element in the responsibilities of commanders (chiefs) and their subordinates in studying the terrain, reconnaissance of the enemy (finding criminals), organizing target designation, interaction and movement of units.

Orientation can be:

Topographicale- determining the sides of the horizon and your location relative to them;

Tactical- determining your location relative to your troops and enemy troops (or relative to search groups, capture and wanted criminals, etc.);

General- approximate determination of your location, direction of movement and time required to reach the final destination of movement. It is used on the march, when the crew of the vehicle does not have a map, but only a pre-compiled diagram or list of settlements and other landmarks along the route is used. utu;

Detailed- precise determination of your location and direction of movement. It is used when orienting using a map, an aerial photograph, using navigation instruments, when moving along azimuths, plotting explored objects and targets on a map or diagram, when determining achieved boundaries and in other necessary cases.

Orientation must be continuous both in time and in space. This means that during the performance of service and combat missions it must be carried out systematically, as we move across the terrain, so that under any conditions, at any time and in any place, we confidently and accurately know our location relative to known landmarks, objects of our actions, initial and final destinations.

The main ways to navigate the terrain are:

According to the map (aerial photograph);

Using navigation equipment;

By compass (on the sides of the horizon);

According to landmarks.

In practice, all these methods are closely intertwined and complement each other.

For orientation in closed or monotonous terrain, poor in landmarks (in the forest, in the desert, in areas that have undergone severe destruction as a result of nuclear strikes), in conditions of poor visibility (at night, in fog, in a snowstorm, during smoke, etc.) , and also in the absence of a map, they use a compass and determine directions by azimuths, that is, they are oriented along the sides of the horizon. With this method, the problem of orientation is solved only partially, since it allows only directions to be determined on the ground.