“Where did the conquest of the world stop? Composition of the Russian Empire Napoleon's desire for peace

On October 7 (19), 1812, Napoleon, at the head of the main forces of the Great Army, left Moscow and headed along the Old Kaluga Road. Intending to secretly bypass the Russian camp located in the area of ​​the village of Tarutino, Napoleon's troops crossed to the New Kaluga Road near the village. Fominsky. The chief surgeon of one of the Württemberg cavalry regiments, Heinrich Ulrich Ludwig von Roos, recalled: “While we were moving from this area, from the old Kaluga road to the new one leading to Borovsk, various events occurred, of which I will note the following. The first rumor that spread at the time of our meeting said that Napoleon was going to penetrate the southern provinces, the breadbasket of Russia, defeat the Russians along the way, ruin the Tula arms factories and then either give us good winter quarters or take us home through rich lands.”.

The Russian command did not know about these plans. Only on October 10 (22) the flying detachment of captain A.N. Seslavin was discovered in the area of ​​the village. Fominsky, the main forces of Napoleon, led by the emperor himself. Having received a report about this, M.I. Kutuzov sent a detachment under the command of D.S. to meet the enemy towards Maloyaroslavets. Dokhturov himself, together with the main forces of the Russian army, also headed towards this city in the morning of the next day.

On October 11 (23), at about 6 p.m., the 13th Infantry Division of the 4th Army Corps, under the command of General A.Zh., advancing in the vanguard of the Great Army. Delzona was occupied by Maloyaroslavets. The next morning, at about 5 o’clock, D.S.’s troops approached the city. Dokhturova. An 18-hour battle began, during which the small county town changed hands several times and, as a result, was almost completely destroyed. A participant in the battle, an officer of the Grand Army Labom, recalled: “...The interior of Maloyaroslavets presented a terrible sight. The city in which they fought no longer existed!

The streets could only be distinguished by the numerous corpses with which they were littered. At every step one came across severed arms and legs, and heads crushed by passing artillery pieces lay lying around. All that was left of the houses were smoking ruins, under the burning ashes of which half-collapsed skeletons could be seen...”

In total, more than 55 thousand people took part in the battle, and the losses on both sides were enormous. There were up to 7,000 killed and wounded Russian soldiers, and the enemy lost the same number.

As a result of the battle, which ended only late at night, Maloyaroslavets, or rather the place where it was located, remained in the hands of the French. But the Russian troops who retreated from it took up positions on the heights around the city, blocking all roads to Kaluga and thereby solving the main task facing them.

“This day is one of the most significant in this bloody war. For the lost battle of Maloyaroslavets would have entailed the most disastrous consequences and would have opened the way for the enemy through our most grain-producing provinces.”, wrote M.I. Kutuzov.

Two days later, on October 15 (27), Napoleon gave the order to retreat to the Old Smolensk Road, which had already been devastated during the first stage of the campaign. One of Napoleon's close associates, Count Philippe Paul de Segur, later recalled Maloyaroslavets as “the ill-fated battlefield on which the conquest of the world stopped, where 20 years of continuous victories crumbled into dust, where the great collapse of our happiness began”.

To this day, the city sacredly preserves the memory of the fierce battle, which became the “beginning of the end” of the great empire of Napoleon and brought great glory to Maloyaroslavets.

2011 “Museum-panorama “Battle of Borodino”

Original title in French: "Carte de la Russie Europeenne en LXXVII feuilles executee au Depot general de la Guerre." Scale 1:500000.

In preparation for the war with Russia, Napoleon Bonaparte was given the task of creating several topographic maps of our country. To quickly complete the job, French spies needed to obtain a detailed map of the Russian Empire and redraw it in their own way.

The so-called " table map"of the territory of Russia, published in 1801-1804. There are several assumptions about how such a map could get to France. According to a more conspiracy theory, copper prints of the map were secretly purchased by the French ambassador J.A. Lauriston from one of the employees of the state archive in St. Petersburg , as evidenced by Colonel J.B. Marbot. According to a more prosaic version, the map, already printed, was purchased in December 1810 from a French second-hand book dealer. The map was not secret.

After receiving the original map, the French translated it using the transliteration method, added their intelligence data, engraved all the sheets of the map again, and already in February 1812, the first 40 copies of the Great Map of the Russian Empire were printed using the stamping method.

The map consisted of 104 sheets 79x50 cm and was divided into European and Asian parts. The European one consisted of 77 sheets. It marked populated areas: provincial cities with hexagons, district cities with pentagons, as well as the main roads deep into Russia, indicating the distances between cities. A Russian-French dictionary of topographical terms is placed on the tab sheet.

The map itself is very conditional; topographers of that time did not yet have the proper skills and tools to draw up accurate maps, but from a toponymic point of view it is of great value. Despite the low accuracy, which objectively deserves a one-star rating on our website: “Poor,” we still gave it a “Satisfactory” rating so that this card could be used for calibration by the correction function.

Our website contains a collection of 29 main map sheets from the Baltic Sea to the Caucasus. Also on the site are several sheets from

At the beginning of the 19th century. The borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe were officially consolidated. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 determined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40" N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54° N to 60° N at a distance of 10 miles from the ocean's edge , taking into account all the bends of the coast. The Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826 established the Russian-Norwegian border.

Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, Belarus, the Baltic states and were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.

The period of geographical discoveries in the populated European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and its scientific synthesis were mainly thematic. Of these, we can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal stripes, proposed by E. F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian Sea, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; N.A.’s work (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the fauna and physical-geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil studies of V.V. in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department to comprehensively study the nature of the steppes and find ways to combat. In this expedition, a stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the study of new Russian lands, the knowledge of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. X. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus system and determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865 The natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Dagestan, the Colchis Lowland, and compiled the first general orographic diagram of the Caucasus.

Ural

Among the works that developed the geographical understanding of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; publication of “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” by E. A. Eversman (1840), which provides a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for drawing up a map of the explored part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the 19th century Research continued in Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai in the 1st half of the century the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical, geographical and geological research.

In 1843-1844. A.F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; for the first time, information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr and the Stanovoy Range. Based on the travel materials, A. F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published “Journey to the North and East of Siberia” - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the explored territories. This work provides characteristics of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the relief features of Central Siberia, the uniqueness of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Sondgagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of southern Eastern Siberia. In 1858, geographical research in the Sayan Mountains was carried out by L. E. Schwartz. During them, topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to relief and. He explored the Oka, Amur, Ussuri rivers, ridges, and discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, coastline, Angara region, Selenga basin, were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Lower Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky explored the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. A geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, and Ya.P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892 During his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Nerskoye Plateau and discovered three high mountain ranges behind the Verkhoyansk Range: Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhai.

Far East

Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the adjacent seas. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G.I. Nevelsky and others continued their research on Sakhalin and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867 Sakhalin was explored by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853 N. K Boshnyak explored and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, the Bureinsky ridge, and Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. XIX century The coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern shore of the Sea of ​​Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budishchev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869 made a major trip around the Ussuri region. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Ussuri and Suchan river basins and crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts of Central Asia annexed to the Russian Empire, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists explored and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, General Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was explored by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836 carried out a description of the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I. Shrenk studied Eastern Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845 The Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of lakes, Zaysan. In 1848-1849 A.I. Butakov carried out the first survey, a number of islands and Chernyshev Bay were discovered.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borschov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Big Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographical complexes and analyzed the mutual relationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.

Since the 1840s exploration of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845 A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857 P.P. Semenov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia occurred during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P. P. Semenov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867 N.A. Severtsov explored the Kirghiz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alai and Trans-Alai ranges. N.A. Severtsov, A.I. Scassi discovered the Rushansky ridge and the Fedchenko glacier (1877-1879). The research carried out made it possible to identify the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (Karakum desert and ancient Uzboy valley).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. spent .

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the 19th century. The discovery of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806. Y. Sannikov made an inventory of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, and New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered an island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811 visited by the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilyevsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823 P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental research, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semenovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In 1820-1824. F. P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukchi Peninsula), and predicted the existence.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819 The eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Alaska-Yukon delta was discovered. In 1835-1838 The lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835 The coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim (Kuskokwim) ridge. In 1835-1841 D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F.P. Litke on the brig “Novaya Zemlya” explored, described and compiled a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833 The first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835 P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A.K. Tsivolka and S.A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5° N. sh., the Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island is discovered. A description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The research carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, ​​1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Czech Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, the island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Explorations of this area in 1840-1845. continued A.A. Keyserling, who conducted the survey and explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850 The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American researcher R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and the interior of the island was explored for the first time.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker “ ”, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited. In 1913-1914 A Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition in distress on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all energy was aimed at preserving life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.

In 1878-1879 During two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. on the small sailing-steam vessel “Vega” was the first to navigate the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Northern Hydrographic Expedition under the leadership of B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking steamships “Taimyr” and “Vaigach”, exploring the possibilities of passing the route north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following their edge to the north, discovered islands called Zemlya Emperor Nicholas II (now Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGS), founded in 1845, (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO) has great merit in the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. DeLong discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett northeast of the island of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886 A study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled based on materials from the Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society of 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai Khoi coastal ridge was depicted with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river areas of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km were accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the altitudes of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this significantly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO occurred in 1873-1914, when the head of the society was Grand Duke Constantine, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in certain fields - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's topography. To process the leveling and produce a hypsometric map, the IRGO hypsometric commission was created. In 1874, IRGO carried out, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand elevation marks were used to compile it , obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to this day; the Central Russian and Volga uplands were depicted for the first time. In 1894, the Forestry Department, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N., organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The Military Topographical Service carried out, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps were drawn up of many territories that had previously been “blank spots” on the map.

Mapping the territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty’s Own Map Depot” released the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost all of European Russia and called the “Cental-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on materials from the General Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinhel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish topographic officers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., the areas annexed to Russia along the Nystadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. The survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were united. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for training professional topographers - a military school founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographical Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with topographical officers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia on a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly using scales. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1:42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Headquarters of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping became one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In 1816-1852. In Russia, the largest triangulation work of that time was carried out, extending 25°20" along the meridian (together with Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the leadership of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on materials from these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

The military topographic depot began in 1821 to compile a survey topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-verst map of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on creating the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half-sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829 Detailed maps on a scale of 1:210,000 were compiled for the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. A survey of Wallachia was also carried out, which became a model of work of its time, since it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into a 1:16,000 atlas. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. verst.

Since the 30s. Geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and other areas.

In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition in the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 under the leadership and funds of the IRGO, work was carried out at the Military Topographical Depot to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the prime meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst map and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their surroundings” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian military topographic department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

A special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO was occupied by relief maps. The large relief map was completed in 1868, and was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances on a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84,000.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Trans-Caspian region based on astronomical, geodetic and topographical work.

Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at this time. Such in particular is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographical service has been the creation of a Military Topographical Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of military topographical maps had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.

In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A.I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps, atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts per inch (1:126,000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, IRGO published multicolor topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).

The Mende filming had an undoubted influence on the further improvement of state mapping methods. In 1872, the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map on a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was a most detailed source of information about the area, used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and. This was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as contour lines.

In 1869-1885. A detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one mile per inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single-versus maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. XIX century The Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I. A. Strelbitsky as the responsible executor of the project for drawing up a Special Map of European Russia and its editor, under whose leadership the final development of all instructional documents was carried out, defining methods for compiling, preparing for publication and publishing a new cartographic works. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments covered more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and visual surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop the new 1st class triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. KVT began implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work was completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in the entire territory of Poland, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, east of the survey sites on the half- and verst-scale.

The results of topographic surveys of previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border space, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), three-verst map (1:126,000) with relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign countries.

In addition to the listed maps, the Military Topographical Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of all of Asian Russia.

Over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers completed an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: identified geodetic points - 63,736; astronomical points (by latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; Instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the Russian Army supplied 6,739 types of maps of different scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge amount of field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, but the coverage of the territory of Russia with topographic survey was uneven, and a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.

Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

Russia's achievements in studying the World Ocean were significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.

In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M . D. Tebenkov, continuously expanded knowledge about the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved navigation maps of these areas. Particularly great was the contribution of M.D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coast of America from Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia,” published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. XIX century expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. Pakhtusov, K.M. Baer and A.K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical-geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between European Pomerania, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps they compiled had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Research of sea coasts and islands in northern Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers, was created for the first time. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s the Yanskaya (1820-1824) expedition under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and the Kolyma expedition (1821-1824) under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel were sent to the same areas. These expeditions carried out the work program of M. M. Gedenstrom’s expedition on an expanded scale. They were supposed to survey the coastline from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription “Mountains can be seen from Cape Yakan in the summer.” This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I. F. Krusenstern (1826) and G. A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867 it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anjou and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

The research carried out in the middle of the 19th century had not only scientific, but also enormous geopolitical significance for Russia. G.I. Nevelsky and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the island position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur and Primorye regions, showing the enormous potential capabilities of these rich areas, provided, as the research of G.I. Nevelskoy proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of the Amur region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and the annexation of Primorye to the Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in borders in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.

Russian hydrographers in the 19th century. continued active work in the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigation atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings to the northern coast, in 1807 - I.M. Budishchev’s atlas to the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836 under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, based on triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.

In the 19th century Intensified study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Boards under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the atlas maps were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the west coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others - on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. In 1847, I.I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsova, who carried out systematic surveying and description for 15 years, drawing up several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the Whole Baltic Sea...” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.

Significant changes to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the work of the Reinecke expedition, the “Atlas of the White Sea...” was published in 1833, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia”, which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M. F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Main Directorate of Communications published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It included general maps at scales of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps at a scale of 2 versts per inch and plans at a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were drawn up, helping to increase the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic works in the 19th and early 20th centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of Russian cartography was the “Marx Great World Desk Atlas” published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.

Mapping nature

Geological mapping

In the 19th century Intensive cartographic study of Russia's mineral resources and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) mapping was being developed. At the beginning of the 19th century. Many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of mineral resources in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Map of Salt Mines”, compiled in the Mining Department. The collection's maps date mainly from the 20s and 30s. XIX century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary maps of salt mines, and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. Thus, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with indications of rock-stone and salt springs discovered in 1824...” also has rich geological content.

An extremely rare example of an early map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula...” indicating the depth and quality of water in villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis of 1817. In addition, the map provides information about the areas of territories having different water supplies, as well as a table of the number of villages by county that need watering.

In 1840-1843. English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.

In the 50s XIX century The first geological maps begin to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg province” (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research were expressed in the “Geological Map of European Russia” (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. Geological mapping of some areas of Asian Russia began.

In 1895, the “Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism” was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is “Map for viewing the state of forests and the timber industry in [European] Russia,” compiled in 1840-1841, as established, by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected through requests through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. Two maps were drawn up in their final form in 1842; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the early examples of soil-climatic maps, which indicated climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climate map has not yet been discovered.

Work to compile a map of forests in European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of organization and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols for drawing up forest plans and maps were created, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state-owned lands in Siberia, which acquired a particularly wide scope after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

Soil mapping

In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. A large number of handwritten soil maps were compiled primarily from inquiries. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist, Academician K. S. Veselovsky, compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia” in 1855, which shows eight soil types: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book “Cartography of Russian Soils,” published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the “Soil Map of European Russia,” laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V.V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S. Neustruev, L.I. Prasolov, etc.) conducted soil, and in fact complex physiographic studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of the provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000 in 1901.

Socio-economic mapping

Farm mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a more in-depth study of the national economy. For this purpose, in the middle of the 19th century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was “Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and industries, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs houses, the main piers, quarantines, etc., 1842” .

A significant cartographic work is the “Economic-statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps,” compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. This was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climate, agricultural). The atlas and its text part make an attempt to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten “Statistical Atlas” compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of N.A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It was apparently compiled in parallel with the “Economic Statistical Atlas” of 1851 and provides a lot of new information in comparison with it.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the “Map of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia” compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistics in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that comprehensively and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of its content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance to the present day.

The first capital atlas of industry was “Statistical Atlas of the Main Sectors of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and Industrial Map of European Russia” by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1 680 000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.

It is worth mentioning one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album “Agricultural Industry in Russia” (1914), representing a collection of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential opportunities of agriculture in Russia to attract new capital investments from abroad.

Population mapping

P.I. Keppen organized the systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittikh. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region on a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.

Among other thematic cartographic works, one should mention the first map of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “General Map of the Entire Russian Empire with the Degree of Population” by A. Rakint, scale 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Comprehensive research and mapping

In 1850-1853. The police department released atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, G.I. Tanfilyev, a student of V.V. Dokuchaev, published a zoning of European Russia, which was first called physiographic. Tanfilyev’s scheme clearly reflected zonality, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the major “Atlas of Asian Russia”, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, accompanied by an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this publication for the first time included a detailed overview of the history of cartography in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The contents of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflect the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas provides an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section consists of maps on which, with backgrounds of different colors, the general picture of land ownership and land use is shown, which displays the results of ten years of activity of the Resettlement Administration for the resettlement of displaced people.

There is a special map dedicated to the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. Cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are dedicated to communication routes, postal institutions and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asian Russia.

So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of defense, national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. At the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state published by the cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 - on this day Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River, unleashing wars between the two crowns of France and Russia. This war lasted until December 14, 1812, ending with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian and allied forces. This is a glorious page of Russian history, which we will consider with reference to the official history textbooks of Russia and France, as well as to the books of bibliographers Napoleon, Alexander 1 and Kutuzov, who describe in great detail the events taking place at that moment.

Beginning of the war

Causes of the War of 1812

The causes of the Patriotic War of 1812, like all other wars in the history of mankind, must be considered in two aspects - the causes on the part of France and the causes on the part of Russia.

Reasons from France

In just a few years, Napoleon radically changed his own ideas about Russia. If, upon coming to power, he wrote that Russia was his only ally, then by 1812 Russia had become a threat to France (consider the emperor) a threat. In many ways, this was provoked by Alexander 1 himself. So, this is why France attacked Russia in June 1812:

1. Violation of the Tilsit agreements: easing of the continental blockade. As you know, the main enemy of France at that time was England, against which the blockade was organized. Russia also participated in this, but in 1810 the government passed a law allowing trade with England through intermediaries. This effectively rendered the entire blockade ineffective, which completely undermined France's plans.
2. Refusals in dynastic marriage. Napoleon sought to marry into the Russian imperial court in order to become “God’s anointed.” However, in 1808 he was denied marriage to Princess Catherine. In 1810 he was denied marriage to Princess Anna. As a result, in 1811 the French emperor married an Austrian princess.
3. Transfer of Russian troops to the border with Poland in 1811. In the first half of 1811, Alexander 1 ordered the transfer of 3 divisions to the Polish borders, fearing an uprising of Poland, which could spread to Russian lands. This step was regarded by Napoleon as aggression and preparation for war for Polish territories, which by that time were already subordinate to France.

Soldiers! A new, second Polish war begins! The first ended in Tilsit. There, Russia promised to be an eternal ally for France in the war with England, but broke its promise. The Russian emperor does not want to give explanations for his actions until the French eagles cross the Rhine. Do they really think that we have become different? Are we really not the winners of Austerlitz? Russia presented France with a choice - shame or war. The choice is obvious! Let's go ahead, let's cross the Neman! The second Polish howl will be glorious for French arms. She will bring a messenger to the destructive influence of Russia on European affairs.

Thus began a war of conquest for France.

Reasons from Russia

Russia also had compelling reasons for participating in the war, which turned out to be a liberation war for the state. The main reasons include the following:

1. Large losses for all segments of the population from the break in trade with England. The opinions of historians on this point differ, since it is believed that the blockade did not affect the state as a whole, but exclusively its elite, who, as a result of the lack of opportunity to trade with England, lost money.
2. France's intention to recreate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and sought to recreate the ancient state in its true size. Perhaps this was only in the event of the seizure of its western lands from Russia.
3. Napoleon's violation of the Peace of Tilsit. One of the main criteria for signing this agreement was that Prussia should be cleared of French troops, but this was never done, although Alexander 1 constantly reminded about this.

For a long time, France has been trying to encroach on Russia's independence. We always tried to be meek, hoping to deflect her attempts to seize us. With all our desire to maintain peace, we are forced to gather troops to defend our Motherland. There are no possibilities for a peaceful resolution of the conflict with France, which means there is only one thing left - to defend the truth, to defend Russia from invaders. I don't need to remind commanders and soldiers about courage, it's in our hearts. The blood of the victors, the blood of the Slavs, flows in our veins. Soldiers! You defend the country, defend the religion, defend the fatherland. I'm with you. God is with us.

Balance of forces and means at the beginning of the war

Napoleon's crossing of the Neman occurred on June 12, with 450 thousand people at his disposal. Around the end of the month, another 200 thousand people joined him. If we take into account that by that time there were no large losses on both sides, then the total number of the French army at the start of hostilities in 1812 was 650 thousand soldiers. It is impossible to say that the French made up 100% of the army, since the combined army of almost all European countries fought on the side of France (France, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Italy, Prussia, Spain, Holland). However, it was the French who formed the basis of the army. These were proven soldiers who had won many victories with their emperor.

Russia after mobilization had 590 thousand soldiers. Initially, the army numbered 227 thousand people, and they were divided on three fronts:

• Northern - First Army. Commander: Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly. Number of people: 120 thousand people. They were located in the north of Lithuania and covered St. Petersburg.
• Central - Second Army. Commander - Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration. Number of people: 49 thousand people. They were located in the south of Lithuania, covering Moscow.
• Southern - Third Army. Commander - Alexander Petrovich Tormasov. Number of people: 58 thousand people. They were located in Volyn, covering the attack on Kyiv.

Also in Russia, partisan detachments were active, the number of which reached 400 thousand people.

The first stage of the war - The offensive of Napoleon's troops (June-September)

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War with Napoleonic France began for Russia. Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman and headed inland. The main direction of the attack was supposed to be on Moscow. The commander himself said that “if I capture Kyiv, I will lift the Russians by the feet, if I capture St. Petersburg, I will take them by the throat, if I take Moscow, I will strike the heart of Russia.”

The French army, commanded by brilliant commanders, was looking for a general battle, and the fact that Alexander 1 divided the army into 3 fronts was very beneficial to the aggressors. However, at the initial stage, Barclay de Tolly played a decisive role, who gave the order not to engage in battle with the enemy and to retreat deeper into the country. This was necessary to combine forces, as well as to strengthen reserves. Retreating, the Russians destroyed everything - they killed livestock, poisoned water, burned fields. In the literal sense of the word, the French moved forward through the ashes. Later, Napoleon complained that the Russian people were carrying out a vile war and did not behave according to the rules.

Northern direction

Napoleon sent 32 thousand people led by General MacDonald to St. Petersburg. The first city on this route was Riga. According to the French plan, MacDonald was supposed to capture the city. Connect with General Oudinot (he had 28 thousand people at his disposal) and move on.

The defense of Riga was commanded by General Essen with 18 thousand soldiers. He burned everything around the city, and the city itself was very well fortified. By this time MacDonald had captured Dinaburg (the Russians abandoned the city at the start of the war) and did not take further active action. He understood the absurdity of the assault on Riga and waited for the arrival of artillery.

General Oudinot occupied Polotsk and from there tried to separate Wittgenstein's corps from the army of Barclay de Tolly. However, on July 18, Wittgenstein launched an unexpected blow on Oudinot, who was saved from defeat only by the arrival of Saint-Cyr's corps. As a result, balance came and no more active offensive operations were carried out in the northern direction.

South direction

General Ranier with an army of 22 thousand people was supposed to act in the southern direction, blocking the army of General Tormasov, preventing it from connecting with the rest of the Russian army.

On July 27, Tormasov surrounded the city of Kobrin, where Ranier’s main forces gathered. The French suffered a terrible defeat - in 1 day 5 thousand people were killed in the battle, which forced the French to retreat. Napoleon realized that the southern direction in the Patriotic War of 1812 was in danger of failure. Therefore, he transferred General Schwarzenberg’s troops there, numbering 30 thousand people. As a result of this, on August 12, Tormasov was forced to retreat to Lutsk and take up defense there. Subsequently, the French did not undertake active offensive actions in the southern direction. The main events took place in the Moscow direction.

The course of events of the offensive company

On June 26, the army of General Bagration advanced from Vitebsk, whose task Alexander 1 set to engage in battle with the main forces of the enemy in order to wear them down. Everyone realized the absurdity of this idea, but only by July 17 was it possible to finally dissuade the emperor from this idea. The troops began to retreat to Smolensk.

On July 6, the large number of Napoleon's troops became clear. To prevent the Patriotic War from dragging on for a long time, Alexander 1 signed a decree on the creation of a militia. Literally all residents of the country are enrolled in it - there are about 400 thousand volunteers in total.

On July 22, the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly united near Smolensk. The command of the united army was taken over by Barclay de Tolly, who had 130 thousand soldiers at his disposal, while the front line of the French army numbered 150 thousand soldiers.

On July 25, a military council was held in Smolensk, at which the issue of accepting the battle was discussed in order to launch a counteroffensive and defeat Napoleon with one blow. But Barclay spoke out against this idea, realizing that an open battle with an enemy, a brilliant strategist and tactician, could lead to a monumental failure. As a result, the offensive idea was not implemented. It was decided to retreat further - to Moscow.

On July 26, the retreat of the troops began, which General Neverovsky was supposed to cover by occupying the village of Krasnoye, thereby closing the bypass of Smolensk for Napoleon.

On August 2, Murat with a cavalry corps tried to break through the defenses of Neverovsky, but to no avail. In total, more than 40 attacks were launched with the help of cavalry, but it was not possible to achieve the desired result.

August 5 is one of the important dates in the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon began the assault on Smolensk, capturing the suburbs by evening. However, at night he was driven out of the city, and the Russian army continued its massive retreat from the city. This caused a storm of discontent among the soldiers. They believed that if they managed to drive the French out of Smolensk, then it was necessary to destroy it there. They accused Barclay of cowardice, but the general implemented only one plan - to wear down the enemy and take a decisive battle when the balance of forces was on the side of Russia. By this time, the French had all the advantage.

On August 17, Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov arrived in the army and took command. This candidacy did not raise any questions, since Kutuzov (a student of Suvorov) was highly respected and was considered the best Russian commander after the death of Suvorov. Having arrived in the army, the new commander-in-chief wrote that he had not yet decided what to do next: “The question has not yet been resolved - either lose the army, or give up Moscow.”

On August 26, the Battle of Borodino took place. Its outcome still raises many questions and disputes, but there were no losers then. Each commander solved his own problems: Napoleon opened his way to Moscow (the heart of Russia, as the Emperor of France himself wrote), and Kutuzov was able to inflict heavy damage on the enemy, thereby making the initial turning point in the battle of 1812.

September 1 is a significant day, which is described in all history textbooks. A military council was held in Fili, near Moscow. Kutuzov gathered his generals to decide what to do next. There were only two options: retreat and surrender Moscow, or organize a second general battle after Borodino. Most of the generals, on the wave of success, demanded a battle in order to defeat Napoleon as soon as possible. Kutuzov himself and Barclay de Tolly opposed this development of events. The military council in Fili ended with Kutuzov’s phrase “As long as there is an army, there is hope. If we lose the army near Moscow, we will lose not only the ancient capital, but also all of Russia.”

September 2 - following the results of the military council of generals, which took place in Fili, it was decided that it was necessary to leave the ancient capital. The Russian army retreated, and Moscow itself, before the arrival of Napoleon, according to many sources, was subjected to terrible looting. However, this is not even the main thing. Retreating, the Russian army set the city on fire. Wooden Moscow burned down almost three-quarters. The most important thing is that literally all food warehouses were destroyed. The reasons for the Moscow fire lie in the fact that the French would not get anything that could be used by the enemies for food, movement or in other aspects. As a result, the aggressor troops found themselves in a very precarious position.

The second stage of the war - Napoleon's retreat (October - December)

Having occupied Moscow, Napoleon considered the mission completed. The commander's bibliographers later wrote that he was faithful - the loss of the historical center of Rus' would break the victorious spirit, and the country's leaders should have come to him asking for peace. But this did not happen. Kutuzov settled down with his army 80 kilometers from Moscow near Tarutin and waited until the enemy army, deprived of normal supplies, weakened and itself brought a radical change in the Patriotic War. Without waiting for a peace offer from Russia, the French emperor himself took the initiative.

Napoleon's quest for peace

According to Napoleon's original plan, the capture of Moscow was to be decisive. Here it was possible to establish a convenient bridgehead, including for a campaign against St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. However, the delay in moving around Russia and the heroism of the people, who fought for literally every piece of land, practically thwarted this plan. After all, a trip to the north of Russia in winter for the French army with irregular food supplies actually amounted to death. This became clearly clear towards the end of September, when it began to get colder. Subsequently, Napoleon wrote in his autobiography that his biggest mistake was the campaign against Moscow and the month spent there.

Realizing the gravity of his situation, the French emperor and commander decided to end the Patriotic War of Russia by signing a peace treaty with it. Three such attempts were made:

1. September 18. A message was sent through General Tutolmin to Alexander 1, which stated that Napoleon revered the Russian emperor and offered him peace. All that is required from Russia is to give up the territory of Lithuania and return to the continental blockade again.
2. September 20. Alexander 1 received a second letter from Napoleon with a peace proposal. The conditions offered were the same as before. The Russian emperor did not respond to these messages.
3. The 4th of October. The hopelessness of the situation led to Napoleon literally begging for peace. This is what he writes to Alexander 1 (according to the major French historian F. Segur): “I need peace, I need it, at all costs, just save your honor.” This proposal was delivered to Kutuzov, but the Emperor of France never received a response.

Retreat of the French army in the autumn-winter of 1812

It became obvious to Napoleon that he would not be able to sign a peace treaty with Russia, and that staying for the winter in Moscow, which the Russians had burned while retreating, was reckless. Moreover, it was impossible to stay here, since constant raids by militias caused great damage to the army. So, during the month that the French army was in Moscow, its strength decreased by 30 thousand people. As a result, the decision was made to retreat.

On October 7, preparations began for the retreat of the French army. One of the orders on this occasion was to blow up the Kremlin. Fortunately, this idea did not work out for him. Russian historians attribute this to the fact that due to high humidity, the wicks got wet and failed.

On October 19, the retreat of Napoleon's army from Moscow began. The purpose of this retreat was to reach Smolensk, since it was the only major nearby city that had significant food supplies. The road went through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked this direction. Now the advantage was on the side of the Russian army, so Napoleon decided to bypass. However, Kutuzov foresaw this maneuver and met the enemy army at Maloyaroslavets.

On October 24, the battle of Maloyaroslavets took place. During the day, this small town passed from one side to the other 8 times. In the final stage of the battle, Kutuzov managed to take fortified positions, and Napoleon did not dare to storm them, since the numerical superiority was already on the side of the Russian army. As a result, the French plans were thwarted, and they had to retreat to Smolensk along the same road along which they went to Moscow. It was already a scorched land - without food and without water.

Napoleon's retreat was accompanied by heavy losses. Indeed, in addition to clashes with Kutuzov’s army, we also had to deal with partisan detachments that daily attacked the enemy, especially his rear units. Napoleon's losses were terrible. On November 9, he managed to capture Smolensk, but this did not bring a fundamental change in the course of the war. There was practically no food in the city, and it was not possible to organize a reliable defense. As a result, the army was subjected to almost continuous attacks by militias and local patriots. Therefore, Napoleon stayed in Smolensk for 4 days and decided to retreat further.

Crossing the Berezina River

The French were heading to the Berezina River (in modern Belarus) to cross the river and cross to the Neman. But on November 16, General Chichagov captured the city of Borisov, which is located on the Berezina. Napoleon's situation became catastrophic - for the first time, the possibility of being captured was actively looming for him, since he was surrounded.

On November 25, by order of Napoleon, the French army began to imitate a crossing south of Borisov. Chichagov bought into this maneuver and began transferring troops. At this point, the French built two bridges across the Berezina and began crossing on November 26-27. Only on November 28, Chichagov realized his mistake and tried to give battle to the French army, but it was too late - the crossing was completed, albeit at the loss of a huge number of human lives. 21 thousand French died while crossing the Berezina! The “Grand Army” now consisted of only 9 thousand soldiers, most of whom were no longer capable of combat.

It was during this crossing that unusually severe frosts occurred, to which the French emperor referred, justifying the huge losses. The 29th bulletin, which was published in one of the newspapers in France, said that until November 10 the weather was normal, but after that very severe cold came, for which no one was prepared.

Crossing the Neman (from Russia to France)

The crossing of the Berezina showed that Napoleon's Russian campaign was over - he lost the Patriotic War in Russia in 1812. Then the emperor decided that his further stay with the army did not make sense and on December 5 he left his troops and headed to Paris.

On December 16, in Kovno, the French army crossed the Neman and left Russian territory. Its strength was only 1,600 people. The invincible army, which terrified all of Europe, was almost completely destroyed by Kutuzov's army in less than 6 months.

Below is a graphical representation of Napoleon's retreat on the map.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War between Russia and Napoleon was of great importance for all countries involved in the conflict. Largely thanks to these events, England's undivided dominance in Europe became possible. This development was foreseen by Kutuzov, who, after the flight of the French army in December, sent a report to Alexander 1, where he explained to the ruler that the war needed to be ended immediately, and the pursuit of the enemy and the liberation of Europe would be beneficial to strengthening the power of England. But Alexander did not listen to the advice of his commander and soon began a campaign abroad.

Reasons for Napoleon's defeat in the war

When determining the main reasons for the defeat of Napoleonic army, it is necessary to dwell on the most important ones, which are most often used by historians:

• A strategic mistake by the Emperor of France, who sat in Moscow for 30 days and waited for representatives of Alexander 1 with pleas for peace. As a result, it began to get colder and provisions ran out, and constant raids by partisan movements brought a turning point in the war.
• Unity of the Russian people. As usual, in the face of great danger, the Slavs unite. It was the same this time. For example, the historian Lieven writes that the main reason for the defeat of France lies in the massive nature of the war. Everyone fought for the Russians - women and children. And all this was ideologically justified, which made the morale of the army very strong. The Emperor of France did not break him.
• The reluctance of Russian generals to accept a decisive battle. Most historians forget about this, but what would have happened to Bagration’s army if he had accepted a general battle at the beginning of the war, as Alexander 1 really wanted? 60 thousand of Bagration’s army against 400 thousand of the aggressor army. It would have been an unconditional victory, and they would hardly have had time to recover from it. Therefore, the Russian people must express words of gratitude to Barclay de Tolly, who, by his decision, gave the order for the retreat and unification of the armies.
• The genius of Kutuzov. The Russian general, who received excellent training from Suvorov, did not make a single tactical miscalculation. It is noteworthy that Kutuzov never managed to defeat his enemy, but managed to tactically and strategically win the Patriotic War.
• General Frost is used as an excuse. To be fair, it must be said that the frost did not have any significant impact on the final result, since at the time the abnormal frosts began (mid-November), the outcome of the confrontation was decided - the great army was destroyed.