Image of the ravine on a topographic map. Symbols of topographic maps and plans. See what “conventional signs” are in other dictionaries

Topographical symbols- these are symbolic symbols of terrain objects used to depict them on topographic maps and plans. Topographic symbols convey the appearance, location and some qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects, contours and relief elements reproduced on maps and plans.

Types of topographical symbols

The terrain on maps and plans is depicted by topographical symbols. All conventional signs of local objects, according to their properties and purpose, can be divided into the following three groups: contour, scale, explanatory.

Contour symbols

Outline cartographic symbols are used to designate local objects expressed on the scale of a topographic map, for example forests, vegetable gardens, swamps, etc. The contours (boundaries) of such objects are depicted on a map or plan by figures similar to their actual outlines in nature. They are usually drawn with a dotted line, if they do not coincide with other lines marked on the ground (for example, ditches, fences, etc.).

The area inside the contours is filled with uniform icons established for each local object - contour symbols. The contour symbol itself does not indicate on a topographic map or plan either the location of an individual object within the contour (for example, a tree in a forest), or its linear dimensions (for example, the height or thickness of a tree).

Scale symbols

TO large-scale cartographic symbols These include images of smaller objects that cannot be expressed to scale. They are called large-scale because their number and size depend on the scale of the topographic map or plan: the smaller the scale, the fewer such signs and the smaller they themselves are.

Some local objects are depicted with such conventional signs on topographic maps of all scales, for example, wells, kilometer posts, individual trees, etc. Others, depending on the scale of the map, can change the type of their sign. For example, settlements on a large scale are depicted by contour symbols with almost all their details. As the map scale decreases, the same points are depicted in less detail and in a more general way; on small-scale topographic maps they can only be depicted as small circles, i.e., large-scale symbols.

Unlike contour symbols, scale symbols always indicate the exact location of the objects they indicate, while the position of wells, water mills, oil wells, mounds, geodetic signs and other objects depicted on maps with circles, squares, asterisks and other symmetrical figures are determined by the centers of the latter .

The location of kilometer posts, road signs, individual trees, etc. is the top of the right angle formed by the vertical line of the sign and its base (undercut). The location of telephone and meteorological stations, elevators, yurts, etc. is determined by the middle of the base of the sign. Finally, the position of roads, ditches and other elongated objects, depicted on a topographic map or plan by one or more lines, is determined by the axis (middle) of the sign.

Thus, when making accurate measurements on a map, the distances between objects depicted by scale marks should be determined using the above points and lines that determine the actual position of points and lines that determine the actual position of points on the ground.

Scale cartographic symbols themselves do not indicate the size of objects, so it is impossible, for example, to measure the width of a road or the size of a silo on a map.

Explanatory symbols

TO explanatory cartographic symbols refer to all other symbols on a topographic map or plan that are used to further characterize local objects. They are always used in combination with conventional topographical signs of the first two types. For example, when marking a forest on a map, inside the contour, in addition to the contour symbols of the forest (circles), an explanatory sign in the form of a deciduous or coniferous tree is placed, indicating the species and age of the trees; when depicting some types of roads, they are indicated by strokes perpendicular to the axis of the road; slopes steeper than 10 degrees; on rivers, flow directions are indicated by an arrow, etc.

Explanatory topographical symbols also include various signatures and numbers accompanying some symbols.

Captions are used to indicate the proper names of objects, such as settlements, rivers, etc., as well as to provide more detailed characteristics of local objects depicted on maps. To do this, for example, next to the topographical symbols of industrial and agricultural enterprises, mining operations and some other items, the type of production, extraction or other characteristic is abbreviated. For example, brick. – brick factory, grain. – grain state farm, ash. - gold mines, dry. - a dried up well.

In the same way, abbreviated captions explain some local objects and landmarks that do not have their own cartographic symbols, but stand out in their meaning. For example, at a hospital building a patient’s signature is placed, at a railway booth - B., etc. The list of abbreviated signatures used on maps is given below.

Digital symbols are used to indicate the number of households in rural settlements, the heights of the most characteristic relief points, the low-water level (the most stable water level during the summer) of water in rivers or lakes, etc.

Conventional signs maps of scales 1:25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are basically the same in design and differ only in their sizes.

Symbols and symbols for some old maps and plans

	Interpretation of conventional topographic signs and designations used on maps from the atlas of the Russian Empire of 1745: “Russian Atlas, consisting of nineteen special maps representing the All-Russian Empire with border lands...”
	Conventional signs and designations used on general survey plans
	Explanation of conventional topographic signs and designations used on maps from the atlas of the Russian Empire of the early 19th century: “Geographical atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland, located by province...”
	Conventional topographic signs and designations for one-verst military topographic maps
	Conventional topographic signs and designations used on the Special Map of the Western Part of the Russian Empire (Schubert Map)
	Conventional topographic signs and designations used in the Special Map of European Russia with the adjacent part of Western Europe and Asia Minor (Strelbitsky map)
	Conventional topographical symbols and signs used in the Detailed militar map along the border of Russia with Prussia, 1799.
	Explanations of topographic signs and symbols used on maps from the 1910 atlas: Marx's Great World Desk Atlas
	Conventional topographical symbols and signs used on the map of Asian Russia, 1901.

The conventional signs that we see on modern maps and plans did not appear immediately. On ancient maps, objects were depicted using drawings. Only starting from the mid-18th century, drawings began to be replaced with images of how objects look from above, or to designate objects with special signs.

Symbols and legend

Conventional signs- these are symbols indicating various objects on plans and maps. Ancient cartographers sought to convey the individual characteristics of objects using signs. Cities were depicted in the form of walls and towers, forests - with drawings of different types of trees, and instead of the names of cities, small banners depicting coats of arms or portraits of rulers were applied.

Currently, cartographers use a wide variety of symbols. They depend on the degree of detail, the coverage of the territory and the content of the cartographic image. Signs on large-scale plans and maps make them look like the objects depicted. Houses, for example, are marked with rectangles, the forest is painted green. From the plans you can find out what material the bridge is made of, what types of trees it is made of and get a lot of other information.

Values are shown in the legend. Legend an image of all symbols that are used on a given plan or map, with an explanation of their meanings. The legend helps to read the plan and map, that is, to understand their content. With the help of symbols and legends, you can imagine and describe terrain objects, find out their shape, size, some properties, and determine their geographical location.

According to their purpose and properties, symbols of plans and maps are divided into three types: linear, area and point.

Linear signs depict roads, pipelines, power lines, borders. These signs tend to exaggerate the width of an object, but accurately indicate its extent.

Area (or scale) signs are used to depict objects whose dimensions can be expressed on the scale of a given map or plan. This is, for example, a lake, a plot of forest, a garden, a field. Using a plan or map, using a scale, you can determine their length, width, and area. Area signs, as a rule, consist of an outline and characters or color filling the outline. All water bodies (fresh lakes, swamps, seas) on any plans and maps are blue. Green color on large-scale plans and maps indicates areas with vegetation cover (forests, shrubs, gardens).

Point (or out-of-scale) signs These are dots or special drawing icons. They display small objects (wells, water towers, free-standing trees on plans, settlements, deposits on maps). Due to their small size, such objects cannot be expressed to scale, so it is impossible to determine their size from a cartographic image.

Many objects that are marked with icons on maps are shown with area symbols on plans. These are, for example, cities, volcanoes, mineral deposits.

The plans and maps have many of their own geographical names, explanatory captions and digital designations. They provide additional quantitative (length and width of the bridge, depth of the reservoir, height of the hill) or qualitative (temperature, salinity of water) characteristics of objects.

Basic elements of map content. Scale, non-scale and explanatory symbols. Card design. General rules for reading topographic maps

Basic elements of map content

Conventional signs are graphic symbols showing the position of an object on the ground and conveying its qualitative and quantitative characteristics. In the Russian Federation and the CIS countries, 465 symbols are used (in the USA - 243, in France - 288, in Germany - 231).

Groups of homogeneous local objects are depicted on maps using the main (basic) symbol. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects of one group are determined by complicating the basic symbol.

The larger the scale of the map, the more objects and in greater detail are shown on it when depicting a given territory. As the scale of the map decreases, the information capacity of the images of various objects on it decreases.

On topographic maps at a scale of 1:25000 - 1:100000, whenever possible, all topographic objects and their characteristic features that are important for the troops are shown. On maps of scales 1:200000 and 1:500000 only the most significant of them are displayed, with a significant generalization of their planned outlines and other indicators.

Conventional signs of local objects are divided into three main groups:

Large-scale;

Non-scale;

Explanatory.

Scaled (or contoured) Conventional signs denote objects expressed on a map scale, that is, those whose dimensions (length, width, area) can be measured on the map.

Each such sign consists of a contour, i.e. a planned outline of the depicted object and an explanatory designation filling it in the form of background coloring, colored shading or a grid of icons (memory signs) identical in design, indicating the genus and variety of the object. The contours of objects are shown as dotted lines on maps if they do not coincide with other terrain lines (ditches, coastlines, roads, etc.), which are indicated by their own symbols.

Off-scale (point) conventional signs depict small-sized objects (wells, individual houses, towers, monuments, etc.) that are not expressed on the scale of the map; the figured design of such a sign includes the main point showing the exact position of the object on the ground and indicates what kind of object it is.

Off-scale symbols can be divided into 4 groups depending on the position of the main point:

Signs that have a center of symmetry (circle, square, rectangle, asterisk, etc.); the main point coincides with the center of symmetry;

Signs that have a wide base, the main point is in the middle of the base;

Signs having a base in the form of a right angle; the main point is at the top of the corner;

Signs representing a combination of several figures; the main point is in the center the symmetry of the lower figure.

Geometric center of a figure

Rice. 1. 1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without towers.

The middle of the base of the sign

Rice. 2 . 1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones.

The vertex of a right angle at the base of the sign

Rice. 3. 1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations4 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs; 5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Geometric center of the bottom figure

Rice. 4. 1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans.

These main points must be used when accurately measuring distances between objects on the map and when determining the coordinates of objects. Non-scale conventional signs include such signs of roads, streams and other linear objects, for which only the length is expressed on a scale, while the width cannot be measured on the map. The exact position of such objects on the ground corresponds to the longitudinal axis (middle) of the sign on the map.

Explanatory symbols are used for additional qualitative and quantitative characteristics of depicted objects and to show their varieties (for example, a symbol of a tree inside a forest).

Card design

Outline design of topographic maps. On each sheet of topographic map, on the outside of the frame, various information necessary for working with cardboard is placed.

Under the nomenclature the number and year of publication of the card are given.

Under the lower (south) side of the frame on the left, data on magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and direction correction are given, and the drawing shows the relationship of these angular quantities; in the middle the linear and numerical scales of the map are placed, the scale value and the height of the relief section are indicated; to the right of the scale there is a scale of depth, intended for determining the steepness of the slopes; on the right it indicates when and by what method the map was created. Data on the time of creation of the map allows us to judge the suitability of the map of the area at the moment (period).

Between the inner and outer lines of the frame of the map sheet, digitization of the vertical and horizontal lines of the coordinate (kilometer) grid and signatures of the geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of the corners of the frame are given.

The sides of the frame are divided into minute divisions (in latitude and longitude), and each minute division is divided into six parts of ten seconds each by dots.

In addition, at the exits of railways and highways the name of the nearest city, town or station where this road leads is given, indicating the distance in kilometers from the frame to this populated area (station).

Inside the frames, the proper names of settlements are also written, which are only partially depicted on this sheet, and most of them are located on the adjacent sheet.

General rules for reading topographic maps

Reading a map means correctly and fully perceiving the symbolism of its conventional signs, quickly and accurately recognizing from them not only the type and varieties of objects depicted, but also their characteristic properties.

Studying a terrain using a map (reading a map) includes determining its general nature, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of individual elements (local objects and landforms), as well as determining the degree of influence of a given area on the organization and conduct of combat.

When studying the area using a map, you should remember that since its creation, changes may have occurred in the area that are not reflected on the map, i.e. the contents of the map will to some extent not correspond to the actual state of the area at the moment. Therefore, it is recommended to begin studying the area using a map by familiarizing yourself with the map itself.

Familiarization with the map. When familiarizing yourself with the map, using the information placed in the outer frame, determine the scale, height of the relief section and the time of creation of the map. Data on the scale and height of the relief section will allow you to establish the degree of detail of the image on a given map of local objects, shapes and relief details. Knowing the scale, you can quickly determine the size of local objects or their distance from each other.

Information about the time of creation of the map will make it possible to preliminarily determine the correspondence of the contents of the map to the actual state of the area.

Then they read and, if possible, remember the values of the magnetic needle declination and direction corrections. Knowing the direction correction from memory, you can quickly convert directional angles into magnetic azimuths or orient the map on the ground along the kilometer grid line.

General rules and sequence of studying the area on the map. The sequence and degree of detail in studying the terrain is determined by the specific conditions of the combat situation, the nature of the unit's combat mission, as well as seasonal conditions and tactical and technical data of the military equipment used in carrying out the assigned combat mission. When organizing defense in a city, it is important to determine the nature of its planning and development, identifying durable buildings with basements and underground structures. In the case where the unit’s route passes through the city, there is no need to study the features of the city in such detail. When organizing an offensive in the mountains, the main objects of study are passes, mountain passages, gorges and gorges with adjacent heights, the shape of the slopes and their influence on the organization of the fire system.

The study of terrain, as a rule, begins with determining its general nature, and then studies in detail individual local objects, shapes and details of the relief, their influence on the conditions of observation, camouflage, cross-country ability, protective properties, conditions of fire and orientation.

Determining the general nature of the area is aimed at identifying the most important features of the relief and local objects that have a significant impact on the accomplishment of the task. When determining the general nature of an area based on familiarization with the topography, settlements, roads, hydrographic network and vegetation cover, the variety of the area, the degree of its ruggedness and closedness are identified, which makes it possible to preliminarily determine its tactical and protective properties.

The general character of the area is determined by a quick overview of the entire study area on a map.

At first glance at the map, one can tell that there are settlements and individual tracts of forest, cliffs and gullies, lakes, rivers and streams indicating rough terrain and limited visibility, which inevitably complicates the movement of military and transport equipment off roads and creates difficulties in organizing surveillance . At the same time, the rugged nature of the terrain creates good conditions for sheltering and protecting units from the effects of enemy weapons of mass destruction, and forests can be used to camouflage unit personnel, military equipment, etc.

Thus, as a result of determining the general nature of the terrain, a conclusion is drawn about the accessibility of the area and its individual directions for the operations of units on vehicles, and they also outline boundaries and objects that should be studied in more detail, taking into account the nature of the combat mission to be performed in this area of the terrain.

A detailed study of the area aims to determine the qualitative characteristics of local objects, shapes and relief details within the boundaries of the unit’s operations or along the upcoming route of movement. Based on obtaining such data from a map and taking into account the relationship of topographic elements of the terrain (local objects and relief), an assessment is made of the conditions of cross-country ability, camouflage and surveillance, orientation, firing, and the protective properties of the terrain are determined.

Determination of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of local objects is carried out using a map with relatively high accuracy and great detail.

When studying settlements using a map, the number of settlements, their type and dispersion are determined, and the degree of habitability of a particular area (district) of the area is determined. The main indicators of the tactical and protective properties of settlements are their area and configuration, the nature of the layout and development, the presence of underground structures, and the nature of the terrain on the approaches to the settlement.

By reading the map, using the conventional signs of settlements, they establish the presence, type and location of them in a given area of the area, determine the nature of the outskirts and layout, the density of

construction sites and fire resistance of buildings, location of streets, main passages, presence of industrial facilities, prominent buildings and landmarks.

When studying the road network using a map, the degree of development of the road network and the quality of roads are clarified, the traffic conditions of a given area and the possibility of efficient use of vehicles are determined.

A more detailed study of roads establishes: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, excavations and other structures; the presence of difficult areas, steep descents and ascents; possibility of leaving roads and driving near them.

When studying dirt roads, special attention is paid to identifying the carrying capacity of bridges and ferry crossings, since on such roads they are often not designed to accommodate heavy wheeled and tracked vehicles.

By studying hydrography, the presence of water bodies is determined from the map, and the degree of ruggedness of the area is specified. The presence of water bodies creates good conditions for water supply and transportation along waterways.

Water surfaces are depicted on maps in blue or light blue, so they clearly stand out among the symbols of other local objects. When studying rivers, canals, streams, lakes and other water barriers using a map, the width, depth, flow speed, nature of the bottom soil, banks and surrounding areas are determined; the presence and characteristics of bridges, dams, locks, ferry crossings, fords and areas convenient for crossing are established.

When studying the soil and vegetation cover, the presence and characteristics of forests and shrubs, swamps, salt marshes, sands, rocky placers and those elements of the soil and vegetation cover that can have a significant impact on the conditions of passage, camouflage, observation and the possibility of shelter are determined from the map.

The characteristics of the forest area studied from the map allow us to draw a conclusion about the possibility of using it for a secretive and dispersed location of units, as well as about the passability of the forest along roads and clearings. Good landmarks in the forest for determining your location and orienting yourself while moving are the forester’s house and clearings.

The characteristics of swamps are determined by the outline of symbols. However, when determining the passability of swamps on a map, one should take into account the time of year and weather conditions. During the period of rains and muddy roads, swamps, shown on the map as passable by a symbol, may actually turn out to be difficult to pass. In winter, during severe frosts, impassable swamps can become easily passable.

Studying the terrain on a map begins with determining the general nature of the unevenness of the area of the terrain on which the combat mission is to be carried out. At the same time, the presence, location and mutual relationship of the most typical typical forms and relief details for a given area are established, their influence on the conditions of cross-country ability, observation, firing, camouflage, orientation and organization of protection against weapons of mass destruction is determined in general terms. The general nature of the relief can be quickly determined by the density and outline of contours, elevation marks and symbols of relief details.

A detailed study of the terrain on a map is associated with solving problems of determining the heights and mutual elevation of points, the type and direction of the steepness of the slopes, the characteristics (depth, width and length) of hollows, ravines, gullies and other relief details.

Naturally, the need to solve specific problems will depend on the nature of the assigned combat mission. For example, the determination of invisibility fields will be required when organizing and conducting surveillance reconnaissance; determining the steepness, height and length of the slopes will be required when determining terrain conditions and choosing a route, etc.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.

Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
Off-scale signs For example, wells and springs are marked on plans, and settlements, volcanoes, and waterfalls are marked on geographic maps.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontals.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways .By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, for example animals, plants, and some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background - division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

To show the average magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading depict greater intensity. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams

To the method map diagrams are used to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in a certain territory, for example, electricity production, the number of school students, fresh water reserves, the degree of arable land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth’s surface that have the same height above the ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct hill leveling - this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Leveling a hill

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Depiction of various relief forms by horizontal lines

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.

On a physical map, the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

"Mysterious" signs and symbols on ancient maps. How roads, houses, churches, ravines, cemeteries, etc. were designated.

Explanation of some abbreviations and words on the MENDE map:

Buyan-field - Flat, elevated place, open on all sides

Vzlobok - A small steep hill.

Veres - Juniper.

Volok (Volok) - Forest or forest clearing

Vspolye - The edge of the field, pasture.

Vyselok (Vyselok) - A small village, predominantly owned, located near single-patrimonial villages.

Greatest - Greatest, highest, highest.

City (G.) - A fortified or walled village. Management status assigned to a volost, district or provincial in relation to other settlements.

Griva - An oblong hill covered with forest.

Village - A village without a church, whose inhabitants are mainly peasants from various departments and live without a landowner.

Right hand - Right hand.

Dresva - Coarse sand.

Zapan - Backwater or river bay.

Zaseka (Zas.) - Defensive structure. It was a combination of dead wood apices, an earthen rampart and a ditch with forts and separate fortresses. The fortifications served as defensive lines that protected against raids by the Golden Horde, who systematically plundered and destroyed Russian cities and villages and took the population into captivity, as well as to protect roads.

Zybun (Zyb.) - A quagmire, an impassable (disastrous) place.

Koshevnik - Wood timber floated down the river.

Cumulus sands (Kuch.) - Accumulations of loose sand around bushes and shrubs... Height 30-50 cm, less often up to 1-2 m. In places they consist of gravel. They usually form in areas with close groundwater - on salt marshes, the coasts of lakes, seas and rivers.

Lying meadow - Worthless, bad meadow.

Monastery, monastery (Mon.) - These consist of various types of monastic hostels, the latter of which sometimes coincide in their meaning with graveyards or estates of the spiritual department.

Grange (m. or Grange) - If it is owned, then most of it is near single-patrimonial villages, or it has the meaning of an estate at a plant and factory, if it belongs to persons of the tax-paying classes.

Myanda - Pine.

Novina - Cleared but not plowed land in the forest.

Dump (Opt.) - A mound of waste rock, slag, formed during the development of mineral resources.

Oselok - Oselok Vlad. wasteland, a place abandoned by its inhabitants; fallow, lie low. Oselok, Oblesye, Oselok or obselye, psk. hard newly populated place, settlement, new settlements, settlement.

Oselye - Oselye is akin to an outskirts, the land around the village.

Perekop - Ditch.

Tares - Weed

Pogost (Pog. or Pogost) - Has a church and a population consisting of clergy and clergy. The word graveyard comes from the word guest. The place where merchants traded was called a graveyard. With the adoption of Christianity, churches began to be built near graveyards. In the 15-16th centuries. churchyards begin to die off, hence the word graveyard has a second meaning - a lonely church.

Undercut (Under.) - A cleared place in the forest.

Disgrace - Review, watch.

Midnight - North.

Posad (P. or Pos.) - An order of huts or a row of houses. A settled settlement located outside a city or fortress.

Pochinok, village and farm (Poch.) - Same as settlement. Farmsteads, however, often have the significance of estates due to their agricultural nature. New settlements arising on the first raised site were called repairs. When the original courtyard was replaced by one or two others, it became a village.

Wasteland (Pust.) - A village turned into a wasteland if there were no residential courtyards left in it and the arable land was abandoned.

Selishche - A large village or settlement where there is more than one church.

Village (S.) - A village with a church, whose inhabitants are mainly peasants from different departments.

Seltso (Sel.) - A village of exclusively owner-occupied nature with a manor house and various owner-owned establishments, or a village in which a landowner lives with peasants or several landowners. A village that was previously a village may also have the name.

Sloboda, Forshtat (Slob.) - A village with more than one church, a settlement outside a city or fortress.

Thorn - Prickly bush

Estate (Us.) - They are of two kinds. Estates of the spiritual department are similar in character to graveyards in terms of the nature of the population. Owner's estates differ either in their agricultural nature or as the location of landowners at a factory or plant

Shuitsa - Left hand.

Church land (CL) - A plot of land belonging to a church parish or monastery.

Information from the Lithuanian forum http://forum.violity.com Thank you, comrades!

Designations from old maps:

Interpretation of the signs used in the atlas of the Russian Empire of 1745:

Explanation of the signs used in the atlas of the Russian Empire 1820-27.

Explanations of the symbols used in the 1910 atlas.

Symbols used on the Special Map of the Western Part of the Russian Empire (Schubert Map).

Symbols used in the Detailed militar map along the Russian border with Prussia, 1799.

P.S. Found treasures

Our trimaran, loaded with heavy diving equipment, half a ton of cargo, is heading south to the village of Khatgal, Mongolia, where the ancient ships found their final refuge.

Over the course of a week, we found and examined four vessels in Lake Khubsugol.