Nomenclature of map sheets 1 25000. The procedure for determining the nomenclature of a map sheet. Invariants of stressed and deformed states of the soil environment

The concept of nomenclature in topography is completely different from its other meanings in our everyday life. This is a set or list of names, terms used in any branch of science, technology, art, etc., this is also a circle of officials appointed by a higher authority. The semantic concept of nomenclature in topography is based on the fact that the adopted provisions must ensure unambiguous designation of topographic sheets or any other maps of various scales.
Nomenclature is a system for designating map sheets of different scales.
Layout - a system of dividing the Earth's surface by meridians and parallels. Each sheet is limited by a frame.
The basis for dividing cards into sheets in our country is international graphics maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (Fig. 5.1).

Rice. 5.1. Layout and nomenclature
topographic maps at a scale of 1:1000000.

The division into rows (belts) by parallels is carried out from the equator every 4º latitude. The rows are designated by letters of the Latin alphabet: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W. Columns within their boundaries coincide with the 6º zones of the Gaussian projection, but they are numbered from the meridian ±180º to the east. Thus, the column number differs from the zone number by 30 units in one direction or another. Columns are designated (by numbers) with Arabic numerals.

Rice. 5.2. Layout and nomenclature of topographical
maps of the CIS countries at a scale of 1:1000000.

Let’s assume that the column number in the international chart is indicated by the number 47. Then the number of the corresponding Gaussian zone will be 47 – 30 = 17. If the column number is less than 30, then to determine the zone number, add 30 to the column number. The nomenclature of a topographic map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is composed of the Latin letter of the row and the Arabic numeral of the column number . For example, S-47. For maps of the southern hemisphere, after the nomenclature in brackets indicate (Y.P.).

Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:500,000 is made by dividing the middle meridian and the middle parallel of a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 into four parts, which are designated by capital letters of the Russian (Ukrainian) alphabet. Nomenclature of map sheets at scale 1:500,000 consists of the nomenclature of the 1:1,000,000 scale map sheet of which it is a part and the corresponding letter.

Layout of sheets of maps at scales 1:200,000 And 1:100 000 is made by dividing each sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 by meridians and parallels, respectively, into 36 and 144 parts (Fig. 5.3). Sheets of maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are numbered with Roman numerals, and for a scale of 1:100,000 - with Arabic numerals in rows from west to east. The nomenclature of map sheets of the indicated scales consists of the nomenclature of the corresponding million sheet and its own number, which for map sheets of scales 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 is indicated to the right of the nomenclature of the million sheet.

Rice. 5.3. Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps at a scale of 1:500,000,
1:200,000, 1:100,000 in a map sheet with a scale of 1:1,000,000

1:50,000 scale map sheets obtained by dividing map sheets at a scale of 1:100,000 into four parts (Fig. 5.4), designated by capital letters of the Russian (Ukrainian) alphabet. The dimensions of the sheet are 10′ in latitude and 15′ in longitude.

The nomenclature of these sheets is formed by attaching the corresponding letter to the nomenclature of a 1:100,000 scale sheet, for example N-37-4-A. (Fig. 5.4)

1:25,000 scale map sheets obtained by dividing sheets of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 into four parts (Fig. 5.4), each of which is designated by lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet. The dimensions of these sheets are 5′ in latitude, 7′30″ in longitude, and the nomenclature is supplemented with the corresponding letter: N-37-4-В-в.

A 1:25,000 scale map sheet is divided into four map sheets scale 1:10,000, each of which measures 2′30″ in latitude and 3′45″ in longitude. They are designated by Arabic numerals, which are indicated after the nomenclature of the 1:25,000 scale map sheet of which they are part, for example N-37-134-B-v-2.

Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:5,000 is made by dividing map sheets at a scale of 1:100,000 into 256 parts (16 rows in latitude and longitude). The sheets are numbered in Arabic numerals in rows from west to east. The size of each sheet is 1′15″ in latitude, 1′53.5″ in longitude. The nomenclature of these sheets is formed by attaching the corresponding number in brackets to the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:100,000, for example: N-37-134-(16).

Rice. 5.5. Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:5,000

Map sheets scale 1:2 000 are obtained by dividing sheets of a map at a scale of 1:5,000 into nine parts and are designated in lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet, for example N-37-134-(16-ж). The size of each sheet is 25″ in latitude and 37.5″ in longitude.

Topographic surveys on a large scale in areas less than 20 km 2 are carried out in private rectangular coordinate systems, not related to the geographical system. The layout of plan sheets in these cases is carried out not by meridians and parallels, but by grid lines. The sheets are in the shape of squares with dimensions of 40 × 40 cm for plans at a scale of 1:5,000 and 50 × 50 cm for plans at a scale of 1:2,000 - 1:500. The layout is based on a plan sheet at a scale of 1:5,000, indicated by Arabic numerals.
A plan sheet at a scale of 1:5,000 corresponds to 4 sheets in scale 1:2 000 , denoted by capital letters of the Russian alphabet (Fig. 5.6).
A plan sheet on a scale of 1:2,000 is divided into 4 sheets of plans scale 1:1000 , designated by Roman numerals, or 16 sheets of plans scale 1:500 , designated by Arabic numerals (Fig. 5.6).

Rice. 5.6 . Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps at scales 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500

In Fig. 5.7 presents the general scheme of layout and nomenclatures of topographic maps adopted in Ukraine.
Other systems for designating large-scale plans are also possible when surveying various objects. In these cases, outside the plan sheets, the accepted layout and numbering schemes are indicated.

Rice. 5.7 . General scheme of layout and nomenclatures of topographic maps, adopted in Ukraine.

Due to the fact that when moving towards the north or south pole, the parts of the earth's surface projected onto a plane in longitude decrease, the sheets of topographic maps become narrow and inconvenient for practical use. Sheets of topographic maps for latitudes 60º – 76º are published double in longitude, and for latitudes 76º – 88º – quadruple in longitude. For regions of the Arctic and Antarctic located at latitudes from 88º to 90º, large-scale maps are published in azimuthal projection.

5.2. DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF THE CORNERS OF THE FRAME OF A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SHEET

The system of layout and nomenclature of map sheets makes it possible to determine the geographic coordinates of the corners of the frame of any sheet of topographic maps of the entire scale range, as well as, using the geographic coordinates of a point, to find the nomenclature of a map sheet of any scale on which this point is located.
Southern latitude The frames of a map sheet with a scale of 1:1,000,000 can be determined using Table 5.1.

Numbers and designations of the northern hemisphere zones

Table.5.1

If there is no table for the designation of belts, then first determine the serial number of the Latin letter of the belt (ordinal number 1 corresponds to the Latin letter A, 2 - B, 3 - C, ...). Then the belt number is multiplied by 4 and the value of the geographical sprat is obtained φ northern parallel of the sheet. Reducing this value by 4. obtains the latitude of the southern parallel of the sheet frame.
To determine the longitudes of the meridians that bound the sheet, it should be borne in mind that the Greenwich meridian is taken as the starting point for counting longitudes, and the beginning of counting the columns comes from the meridian having a longitude of 180. Therefore, for columns with numbers 31-60 (east of the Greenwich meridian), the column number is reduced by 30, multiplied by 6º and the value is determined geographic longitude eastern meridian leaf. By decreasing this value by 6º, the longitude of the western meridian of the sheet is obtained.

Example. For a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 with nomenclature N-37, determine the geographic coordinates (Fig. 5.8).
Solution:

• the serial number of the letter N in the Latin alphabet is 14;
• by serial number we determine the latitude of the northern parallel 14 × 4 = 56º
• by decreasing the value of northern latitude by 4, we obtain the latitude of the southern parallel of the sheet frame 56º – 4º = 52º
• determine the longitude of the eastern meridian (37 – 30) × 6º = 42º
• by decreasing the longitude of the eastern meridian by 6, we obtain the longitude of the western meridian 42º – 6º = 36º

Rice. 5.8. Geographic coordinates of frame corners
map sheet at scale 1:1,000,000 with nomenclature N-37

5.3. DETERMINATION OF THE NOMENCLATURE OF MAP SHEETS BY GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF OBJECTS

Using the geographic coordinates of a point, you can determine the nomenclature of any sheet of the topographic map on which this point is located
For this it is necessary:

• determine the number of the belt in which the desired leaf is located by dividing the latitude in degrees plus four by 4.

Attention! To obtain a remainder that is an integer number of degrees, division should be performed without using a calculator.

• Using the belt number from Table 5.1, determine belt designation (Latin letter).

The Latin letter of the belt can be calculated using a computer. To do this, enter the formula in Microsoft Excel spreadsheets:
=CHAR( belt number+64)

• determine the column number by dividing the longitude in degrees plus six by 6 and adding 30 to the quotient;
• Based on the remainder (degrees and minutes), determine the nomenclature of sheets of maps on a larger scale.

Example.
Object coordinates: latitude 53°50′N; longitude 40°30′E.
Determine the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:500,000.

Solution.
Belt number (row) (53 + 4) : 4 = 14 integers.
We will use 1º in the remainder of the division and 50′ of latitude (a total remainder of 1°50′) to determine the nomenclature of a map sheet on a larger scale.
14 integers is the serial number of the row. The number 14 corresponds to the Latin letter N. The symbol N corresponds to the belt of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Column number (40 + 6) : 6 + 30 = 37.
Longitude remainder 4° + 30" = 4°30".

The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 will be N – 37.

We draw up a scheme for dividing the sheet 1:1,000,000 into equal parts by longitude and latitude (Fig. 5.9).

Figure 5.9. Determination of the nomenclature of map sheet 1: 500,000

We count from the southern border of the scheme 1°50′ (latitudinal remainder) and from the western border 4°30′ (longitude remainder). We get the intersection of the lines at the quarter, designated by the capital letter G. Thus, the required nomenclature for a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:500,000 will be N-37-G.

To determine the nomenclature of maps at a scale of 1:200,000, the method for determining the trapezoid number is the same as for a scale of 1:500,000.

Figure 5.10. Determination of the nomenclature of map sheet 1: 200,000

At the intersection of the dotted lines (Figure 5.10) we see the Roman numeral XXIII. We add the Roman numeral to the nomenclature of sheet 1: 1,000,000 and we get the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000 N-37-XXIII.
By sequentially drawing up schemes for dividing sheets with the designation of their coordinates, it is possible to determine the nomenclature of sheets of maps on a larger scale.

5.4. DETERMINING THE NOMENCLATURE OF ADJACENT MAP SHEETS

To select the required sheets of maps, prefabricated tables are used - small-scale schematic maps, which show the layout and nomenclature of maps. To select a sheet, a given route or area is marked on a prefabricated table of the appropriate scale and, according to the layout indicated on the prefabricated table, the nomenclatures of the sheets included in the intended area are written out.

Rice. 5.11. Fragment of a prefabricated table of sheets
maps scale 1:100,000

In the absence of a prefabricated table, the nomenclature of map sheets is determined using layout diagrams made independently. In this case, two cases are possible. If the nomenclature of one or several sheets is known and it is necessary to determine the nomenclatures of a number of adjacent sheets, then a diagram for laying out maps of the appropriate scale is carried out, these sheets are marked on it and the nomenclature of adjacent sheets is written out.
If you have to determine the nomenclature of map sheets for a new area, then you need to use some geographic map to determine the geographic coordinates of an object located in the desired area, use them to find its position on the layout diagram of map sheets at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and write down the nomenclature of this sheet . Then, according to the layout scheme for map sheets of the appropriate scale, taking into account the latitude and longitude of the corners of the map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000, the position of the object is found according to its geographic coordinates and the nomenclature of the required sheets is written down.

Rice. 5.12. Signatures on the sides of the frame of the nomenclatures of adjacent map sheets

The nomenclature of sheets adjacent to the existing map sheet can be recognized by the signatures on the frame on the corresponding side (Fig. 5.12).
Examples of drawing up diagrams of adjacent map sheets are shown in Fig. 5.13, and 5.14.

Rice. 5.13. Scheme of adjacent sheets of a map at a scale of 1:100,000.
Adjacent sheets are highlighted by filling.

Rice. 5.14 Scheme of adjacent sheets of a map at a scale of 1:200,000. Adjacent sheets are highlighted with fill.

5.5. DIGITAL NOMENCLATURE OF CARDS

The digital nomenclature of cards is used to record cards and compile applications for cards using a computer. Each letter representing the belts has been replaced with two-digit numbers. These numbers correspond to the serial number of the belt (or letters in the Latin alphabet). For example, A-01, B-02, C-03, D-04, E-05, F-06,
The digital nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1,000,000 K-38 will be written 11-38.
Each sheet of a map of scale 1: 200,000 is designated by a two-digit number from 01 to 36, and of scale 1: 100,000 - by three digits from 001 to 144. Letters in the nomenclatures of sheets of maps of scales 1: 500,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 25,000 are replaced by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively.
The digital form of recording nomenclatures for all scales is given in table. 5.2.

Table 5.2.

For the nomenclature of maps of the Southern Hemisphere, the letters YUP are added to the usual nomenclature in brackets, for example M-Z6-A(YUP). Before the digital nomenclature of sheets of maps of the Southern Hemisphere they put the number: 9, for example M-36-A (YuP) has the form 9-13-36-1.

5.6. METHODOLOGY FOR SELECTION OF CARDS USING PREPARATION TABLES

The selection of the necessary map sheets for a given terrain point by coordinates is made using prefabricated tables.
Composite tables are a blank version of a small-scale map, which indicates the layout and nomenclature of the maps. For the convenience of selecting maps, larger rivers, lakes, settlements, borders and other terrain objects are plotted on prefabricated tables.
To select the necessary map sheets for a terrain point given by coordinates, it is necessary to plot this point on the prefabricated table using coordinates and write down the nomenclature of maps of the required scale.
To select maps for a given area, you need to plot the boundaries of the area on a prefabricated table, and then write out the nomenclature of the required map scales.
When gluing sheets of cards into a block, you need to know the nomenclature of the sheets adjacent to each other. To do this, use the layout of the sheets, which is placed under the southern frame of the map. On large-scale maps, the arrangement of sheets is not printed, and the nomenclature of adjacent sheets is indicated on each side of the map frame.
Using the known coordinates of a point, you can determine the nomenclature of the map sheet. To do this, you first need to determine the nomenclature of the scale map sheet
1: 1,000,000. The belt of the desired sheet is determined by dividing the latitude of the point in degrees by 4. The column number is determined by dividing the longitude of the point in degrees by 6. 30 is added to the resulting number. In both cases, if the division results in a fractional number, the result must be rounded to the larger side. Having received the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1,000,000, you can easily determine the nomenclature of a map sheet of any scale.

Example. The geographical coordinates of the object are given: latitude 56°20′,
longitude 70°30". Determine the nomenclature of the March sheet on a scale of 1: 1,000,000.
Solution.
1. Determine the number of the belt: 56°: 4 = 14, the remainder is 20". We round to a whole number, then the serial number of the belt will be 15, which corresponds to the letter O of the Latin alphabet.
2. Determine the column number: 70°: 6 = 11, the remainder is 4°30", i.e. the required column will be 12 + 30 = 42.
The nomenclature of a map sheet at scale 1: 1,000,000 will be O-4

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Give definitions: “map layout”, “map nomenclature”.
2. How is the layout done and what symbols are used to make up the nomenclature of scale maps: 1:1,000,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000, 1:5,000, 1:2,000?
3. How is the layout done and what symbols are used to make up the nomenclature of scale plans: 1:5,000, 1:2,000, 1:1,000, 1:500?
4. How to determine the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:500,000 if the geographic latitude and longitude of a point (object) are known?
5. How to find the nomenclature of adjacent and adjacent (corner) sheets using the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000?
6. What is digital card nomenclature?
7. What is the difference between the nomenclature of maps of the southern hemisphere and the nomenclature of maps of the northern hemisphere?
8. What are prefabricated tables?
9. How is the selection of maps for a given area carried out using prefabricated tables?

Topographical maps are those whose completeness of content makes it possible to solve various problems using them. Maps are either the result of direct survey of the area, or are compiled from existing cartographic materials.

The terrain on the map is depicted at a certain scale. The scale shows how many times the image on the ground is reduced when displayed on the map.

In our country, the following scales of topographic maps are accepted: 1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, 1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000. This series of scales is called standard . Previously, this series included scales of 1:300,000, 1:5000 and 1:2000.

Maps of scales 1:10,000 (1cm =100m), 1:25,000 (1cm =100m), 1:50,000 (1cm =500m), 1:100,000 (1cm =1000m) are called large-scale.

Topographic maps are compiled in the equiangular transverse cylindrical projection of K. F. Gauss, calculated from the elements of the Krasovsky ellipsoid in the adopted coordinate system, and in the Baltic height system. When compiling maps, the earth's surface is divided into six-degree zones in longitude and four-degree zones in latitude.

Sheets of maps of scales 1: 1,000,000 - 1: 10,000 are limited by meridians and parallels, the length of the arcs of which depends on the scale of the map.

North of the 60th parallel, sheets of maps of scales 1:100,000 - 1:10,000 are published double, and north of the 76th - quadruple. When doubling sheets of a map of scale 1: 100,000, the sheet that is odd in nomenclature is connected to the next serial sheet that is even in nomenclature. When doubling sheets of maps of other scales, sheets included in one trapezoid of a smaller scale are connected.

To determine the position of a point from a topographic map using rectangular zonal coordinates, a coordinate grid is applied to the map. It is formed by a system of lines parallel to the image of the axial meridian of the zone (vertical grid lines) and perpendicular to it (horizontal grid lines). The distances between adjacent grid lines depend on the map scale. For example, at the card

1:200,000 the distance between kilometer grid lines is 2 cm (4 km); for a map of scale 1:100,000 - 2 cm (2 km); the map has 1:50,000 2 cm (1 km); the 1:25,000 map has 4 cm (1 km).

The ends (exits) of the coordinate grid lines at the frame of the map sheet are labeled with the values ​​of their rectangular coordinates in kilometers. The extreme lines on the sheet are signed with the full (four-digit) values ​​of the abscissa and transformed (increased by 500 km) ordinates of the zonal coordinate system. The remaining grid lines are signed with the last two digits of the coordinate values ​​(abbreviated coordinates).

To eliminate difficulties with the use of coordinate grids related to neighboring zones, it is customary to show, within stripes of 2° longitude along the western and eastern boundaries of the zone, the outputs of the coordinate grid lines not only of your zone, but also of the nearest neighboring one.

Splitting a sheet of scale 1: 1,000,000 into sheets of scale 1: 500,000.

For example, sheet O-37 is divided into four sheets O-37-A, O-37-B, O-37-B, O-37-G. However, due to the inconvenience of working with mixed alphabets - Latin and Cyrillic, the resulting sheets are often designated using single-digit Arabic numerals: O-37-1, O-37-2, O-37-3, O-37-4.

Splitting a sheet of 1:1,000,000 into sheets of scale 1:200,000.

To designate a two-kilometer distance, Roman numerals from I, II,…X,..XXVI are used.

For example, from a ten-kilometer O-37 sheet, 36 sheets of two-kilometer sheets of the form O-37-I, ...O-37-XXVI are obtained. Using Roman numerals is also inconvenient, so two-kilometer routes are designated with two-digit Arabic numerals from 01 to 36. This is what the designations for two-kilometer routes look like in tourist documents O-37-01, O-37-25, O-37-36.

Splitting a sheet of 1:1000000 into sheets of scale 1:100000.

Kilometer sheets are usually designated as ten-kilometer sheets with the addition of a three-digit number from 001 to 144. For example, O-37-001, O-37-144.

Determining the coordinates of terrain points on the map.

In the practice of a tourist, there is often a need to determine or indicate the position of individual objects and local objects on the map.

This task comes down to indicating the position of a local object or its location in relation to known points (lines); it can also be solved using coordinates.

Coordinates are angular or linear quantities that determine the position of a point on any surface or in space. When determining the position of terrain points on a map, geographic and plane rectangular coordinates are used.

Geographical coordinates represent angular values ​​- latitude and longitude, which determine the position of points on the earth's surface relative to the equator and the meridian taken as the initial one.

Geographic latitude- this is the angle formed by the equatorial plane and the plumb line at a given point on the earth's surface. The magnitude of the angle shows how much a particular point on the globe is north or south of the equator. If a point is located in the Northern Hemisphere, then its latitude is called northern, and if in the Southern Hemisphere - southern. The figure shows that angle B corresponds to the latitude of point M. The latitude of points located on the equator is 0°, and those located at the poles (North and South) is 90°.

Geographic longitude- the angle formed by the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian passing through a given point. The prime meridian passing through the astronomical observatory in Greenwich (near London) is taken as the prime meridian. All points on the globe located east of the prime (Greenwich) meridian to the 180° meridian have eastern longitude, and those to the west have western longitude. Therefore, angle L is the eastern longitude of point M.

It is known that the sides of the frames of topographic map sheets are meridians and parallels. Geographic coordinates of the corners of the frames are signed on each sheet of the map.

To determine the geographic coordinates of terrain points from a map, an additional frame with divisions every one minute is placed on each sheet. Each minute division is divided by dots into six equal segments every 10". To determine the geographical coordinates of a point, it is necessary to determine its position relative to the minute and second divisions in latitude and longitude.

To plot a point on the map at specified geographic coordinates, an additional frame with divisions after one minute is also used.

Geographic coordinates are usually used to determine the relative positions of points that are very large distances from each other.

Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps.

Topographic maps are usually created over large areas of the earth's surface. For ease of use, they are published in separate sheets, the boundaries of which are usually called map frames. The sides of the frames are meridians and parallels; they limit the area of ​​terrain depicted on the map sheet. Each sheet of the map is oriented relative to the sides of the horizon so that the top side of the frame is north, the bottom is south, the left is west, and the right is east.

The map sheet is limited by arcs of parallels and meridians.

The basis for the layout and designation of sheets of topographic maps of the USSR is a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1000,000.

A map sheet of scale 1: 1,000,000 is limited by meridian arcs 4° long, and in longitude by a parallel arc 6° long.

To make it easy and quick to find the necessary map sheets of a particular scale, each of them has its own symbol - nomenclature.

Nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1000000 consists of row and column symbols. The rows are located parallel to the equator and are designated by capital letters of the Latin alphabet. The boundaries of the rows are parallels drawn from the equator through 4° latitude. The rows are counted from the equator to the poles: A, B, C, D, E, etc. The columns are arranged vertically. Their boundaries are meridians drawn through 6° in longitude. Columns are designated by Arabic numerals from a meridian with a longitude of 180° from west to east. When designating the nomenclature of a map sheet, the letter indicating the row is written first, and then through the dash the number of the column, for example M-38, K-36, etc.

To make it easier to select the necessary sheets and determine their nomenclature, use prefabricated tables (blank maps) for each scale. Sometimes a prefabricated table (blank map) is made for several scales. A composite table (blank map) is a small-scale schematic map, divided into cells by horizontal and vertical lines. These lines seem to coincide with the direction of the meridians and parallels and indicate the frames of the map sheets. Thus, on the prefabricated table, each cell depicts the boundaries of a map sheet of one scale or another. To more quickly determine the nomenclature of map sheets for a given area (district) of terrain, large settlements, rivers, main roads and some other objects are shown on prefabricated tables. Using the composite table, it is easy to determine the nomenclature of any map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000. For example, the map sheet on which the city of Polensk is located has nomenclature N-36.

Nomenclature of each sheet of a map of scales 1:500000, 1:200000 and 1:100000 consists of the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1000,000 with the addition of the corresponding letter or number. One sheet of the millionth card includes:

4 sheets of map of scale 1:500,000, which are designated by the letters A, B, C, D,

or 36 sheets of maps at a scale of 1:200,000, which are designated by Roman numerals from I to XXXVI,

or 144 sheets of map at a scale of 1:100000, which are designated by Arabic numerals from 1 to 144.

Sheets of scale 1:200000 have the nomenclature N-36-I to N-36-XXXVI

(Sheets of scale 1:200000 have the nomenclature from N-36-01 to N-36-36)

Sheets of scale 1:100000 have the nomenclature from N-36-1 to N-36-144

(Sheets of scale 1:100000 have the nomenclature N-36-001 to N-36-144)

Nomenclature of each sheet of a map of scales 1: 50,000 and 1:25,000 associated with the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:100000. One sheet of a map of scale 1:100000 contains 4 sheets of map of scale 1:50000. In turn, one sheet of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 is divided into 4 sheets of a map at a scale of 1:25,000. The nomenclature of a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 consists of designating a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 by adding the corresponding capital letter of the Russian alphabet A, B, C, D, for example, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:50000 may be designated N-36-41-B. The nomenclature of map sheets at a scale of 1:25,000 consists of the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 with the addition of one of the lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet a, b, c, d. For example, the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:25,000 may have the designation N-36- 41-B-a. The signature of the nomenclature of each sheet of the topographic map is given in the middle of the northern side of the frame. Next to the nomenclature, the name of the main settlement or other large object located on this map sheet is signed.

Selection (determination) of the necessary map sheets for a given area (section, strip) is carried out according to prefabricated tables. To do this, it is necessary to plot the boundaries of the area on a composite table of the appropriate map scale. Then, using the designations on the assembly table, write down the nomenclatures of all the sheets that are included in this area. The nomenclatures of the sheets adjacent to the existing map sheet are signed on the outer part of each side of the frame. In this case, when determining the nomenclature of the adjacent map sheet, there is no need to use the Composite Table.

Plane rectangular coordinates are linear quantities that determine the position of points on the plane relative to the established origin of coordinates.

In general, the origin of coordinates is taken to be the intersection point of two mutually perpendicular lines, called coordinate axes. The vertical axis is called the x-axis (X), and the horizontal axis is called the y-axis (Y). The position of a point is determined by segments of the coordinate axes Oa and Ob or the shortest segments (perpendiculars) from the defined point to the corresponding coordinate axes (Xm and Um). In our example, the segment Xm is equal to 4 divisions, and the segment Um is equal to 6 divisions. Therefore, the rectangular coordinates of point M will be X = 4, Y = 6.

X values ​​are considered positive upward (to the north) from the OY line (Y axis) and negative downward from it. The values ​​of Y values ​​are considered positive to the right (east) of the OX line (X axis), negative to the left of it (west)

The use of a system of flat rectangular coordinates in topography has some features caused by the spherical shape of the Earth, which cannot be depicted on a plane without breaks and distortions. Therefore, it was conditionally divided into equal parts, limited by meridians with a longitude difference of 6°, which were called coordinate zones. The zones are counted from the Greenwich (primary) meridian to the east from 1 to 60.

In each zone, the axial meridian is taken as the vertical coordinate axis (x-axis). The horizontal Y axis in all zones is the equator line. The intersection of the axial meridian of each zone with the equator is taken as the origin of coordinates.

For the territory of the USSR, located in the Northern Hemisphere, all values ​​of the x coordinate will be positive. The values ​​of the y coordinate will depend on the location of the point (map sheet) in relation to the axial meridian of the zone and can be positive and negative in any of the hemispheres.

In order not to deal with negative numbers, we agreed to consider the Y coordinate at point 0 (the origin) to be equal not to zero, but to 500 km. The total length of the zone along the equator is about 700 km, therefore, at any position of the point relative to the average axial meridian of the zone, the value of its coordinate y will be positive. Thus, point 0 (origin) has coordinates x=0, y=500 km. Keeping in mind that the coordinate value at the axial meridian is 500 km, it should be remembered that all points with a coordinate of more than 500 km are located to the east of the axial meridian, and points with a y-coordinate of less than 500 km are located to the west of it .

In order to indicate the zone in which an object is located, when determining its coordinates, it was agreed to write the zone number at the y coordinate with the first digits, followed by a six-digit number indicating the value of the y coordinate in meters. For example, if point M, located in the 12th zone, is located east (to the right) of the axial meridian at a distance of 80300 m (segment aM), then its coordinate y has the value 12580300, where the number 12 indicates the zone number, and to the value 80300 added 500 km value at the axial meridian. The x coordinate of point M corresponds to the size of the segment bM. If point M is located at a distance of 3260 km 700 m from the Oy axis, then its x coordinate has a value of 3,260,700.

Coordinate (kilometer) grid on maps.

On topographic maps, a system of flat rectangular coordinates is given in the form of a grid of mutually perpendicular lines. Horizontal grid lines are drawn parallel to the equator, and vertical grid lines are drawn parallel to the axial meridian of the zone. Grid lines on maps are drawn at equal distances from one another and form a grid of squares, which is called a coordinate or kilometer grid. It is called kilometer because the sides of the squares are equal to an integer number of kilometers on the map scale. For each scale, the dimensions of the sides of the grid squares are set.

The coordinate (kilometer) grid and the numbers at its exits outside the frame of the map sheet are printed in black. Near the corners of the frame of the map sheet, kilometer lines are signed in full, and in the intervals - abbreviated, with two numbers indicating units and tens of kilometers.

For ease of working with the map in the field, the values ​​of the coordinate lines are signed in several places inside each sheet.

On the outer frame of the map sheets, the outputs of the coordinate grid of the adjacent (western or eastern) zone are shown with dashes and captions. By connecting the exits of the same name located on opposite sides of the frame with straight lines, we obtain a coordinate grid of the neighboring zone on this map sheet (Appendix 1).

A map sheet with a kilometer grid contains information about rectangular coordinates.

The vertical (X coordinate) indicates the distance from the equator in kilometers - a four-digit number.

The horizontal (Y coordinate) is indicated by a four or five-digit number, where the last three digits are the distance from the axial meridian of the zone, taking into account a displacement of 500 km, and the first one or two digits are the zone number, obtained by subtracting the number 30 from the number written in the million nomenclature. For example, for sheet P-36 the zone number is 6, and for sheet P-45 the zone number is 15. In the cases considered, the Y coordinate is 6256, and the other is 15567.

158. Burdin V. M. Peculiarities of the criminal profile of minors in Ukraine. - K: Atika, 2004. - 240 p.

159. Omelyanenko G. Nutritional stagnation of primus influxes of vortex character to non-flight individuals. // Legal Newsletter of Ukraine. – 1997. – No. 22. – p. 27-29.

160. Shevchenko Y.N. Legal regulation of the responsibility of minors. – K., 1976.

Tasks for determining the nomenclature of cards

Task 1. Determine the nomenclature of a map at a scale of 1:10000 based on the geographic coordinates of a point located on a given map sheet

B=55 0 26"10" ( latitude)

L=36 0 57"15" ( longitude)

The procedure for determining the nomenclature of a map sheet.

We determine the nomenclature of sheets of maps at scales 1:1000,000,

1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, at which the point with the given geographic coordinates is located: latitude B and longitude L. We draw a diagram of the layout of these sheets (Figures 10 and 11).

1. Determine the nomenclature of the millionth sheet of the map on which the point with these coordinates is located. In latitude, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1000,000 occupies 4 0. Therefore, 55 0 26 "10" is divided by 4 0 and the number of the belt is found out, and by the number, the letter of the belt.

If 55 0 26 "10": 4 = 13 with remainder, i.e. the fourteenth belt, and the fourteenth letter - “ N" In longitude, a sheet of a map with a scale of 1:1000 000 occupies 6 0, so the longitude value of the point is 36 0 57 "15" : 6 0 = 6 with remainder. To get the column number, you need to add 30 to the zone number and get 7+30=37. the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1000,000 will be N-37.

2. Determine the nomenclature of the map sheet at a scale of 1:100000, on which the point with the given coordinates is located. Since a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 occupies a latitude of 20′, a point with a latitude of 55 0 26 "10" will be located in a strip limited from the north by 55 0 40′. and from the south parallel with latitude 55 0 20′.

A point with a longitude of 36 0 57 "15", will be located in a column limited from the west by a meridian with a longitude of 36 0 30', from the east by a meridian of 37 0.

According to Figure 10, the sheet number will be 14. Therefore, the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:100000 will be: N-37-14.

3. A map sheet at a scale of 1:100,000 is used as the basis for drawing maps and plans of larger scales. One sheet of map N-37-14 a scale of 1:100,000 corresponds to 4 sheets of a map of a scale of 1:50,000, designated by the letters A, B, C and D. A sheet of a map of a scale of 1:50,000 contains 4 sheets of a map of a scale of 1:25,000 (a, b, c, d). A 1:25000 map sheet is divided into 4 sheets of a 1:10000 scale map, designated by numbers 1,2,3,4 (Fig. 11).

The solution to this problem is to select a map sheet of the required scale according to the latitude and longitude of the boundary parallels and meridians of the sheet and according to the given coordinates of the point. The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:10000 will be N-37-14-G-b-4. The solution is drawn up in the form of drawings: on top is a sheet of 1:1000,000, divided into 144 sheets of 1:100,000, below is the required sheet (Figures 10 and 11).

Figure 10. Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:1000000

in a map sheet at a scale of 1:100000

Figure 11. Layout of sheets of maps at a scale of 1:50,000,

1:25000, 1:10000 in a 1:100,000 scale map sheet

Task 2. Determine the geographic coordinates of the corners of the trapezoid frame using this nomenclature:

a) L-41-112; b) M-32-A; V) J-37-13-A-6.

a) L-41-112(this nomenclature is scale 1:100000)

1. According to the letter of the belt " L» determine its number Letter « L" - twelfth in the Latin alphabet. Belt size – 4 0, 12 · 4 0 = 48 0. The latitude of the northern parallel is 48 0 00". The latitude of the southern parallel is 44 0 00".

2. Column number – 41. Zone number – 41-30=11. The longitude column occupies 6 0, 11·6 0 = 66 0. The longitude of the eastern meridian is 66 0 00"; the longitude of the western meridian is 60 0 00"

Figure 12

3. The 112th sheet is in the third row from the south and in the fourth column from the west. The latitude of a map sheet at a scale of 1:100000 is 20´. Therefore, the latitude of the northern frame will be 44 0 00 "+ 20" · 3=45 0 00". The latitude of the southern frame will be 44 0 00", the longitude of the eastern frame will be 60 0 00´+30´·4=61 0 30´

b) M-32-A(map scale 1:500000).

Letter " A" - this is the upper left part of the map sheet at a scale of 1:1000000.

1. Similarly to the previous task, we determine the latitudes of the northern and southern frames of the map sheet at a scale of 1:1000000 M-32 Letter " M» – thirteenth, 13 · 4 0 =52 0 (latitude of the northern frame). The latitude of the southern frame is 48 0. The zone number is determined as follows: 32–30=2, 2 · 6 0 =12 0 . The longitude of the eastern frame is 12 0. The longitude of the western frame is 6 0 .

Figure 13.

V) J-37-13-A-b(scale 1:25000).

1. Similar to the previous tasks, we determine the geographic coordinates of the corners of the trapezoid frame on a scale of 1:1000000 ( J-37) Letter " J" - ninth. 9·4 0 =36 0 (northern frame). 37–30=7, 7·6 0 =42 0 (eastern frame).

Layout cards - a system for dividing cards into separate sheets.

Nomenclature cards - a system of numbering and designation of individual sheets. Each sheet is limited by a frame. The sides of the frames of topographic map sheets are parallels and meridians (Table. 3).

Table 3

Sizes of topographic map sheets

The nomenclature of topographic maps of the USSR is based on a map of scale 1: 1,000,000.

Nomenclature of a map at a scale of 1:1000,000 (Fig. 2). The entire surface of the Earth is divided by parallels into rows (every 4°), and by meridians into columns (every 6°); the sides of the resulting trapezoids serve as the boundaries of map sheets at a scale of 1: 1000,000. The rows are designated by capital Latin letters from A beforeV,starting from the equator to both poles, and the columns are in Arabic numerals, starting from the 180° meridian from west to east. The nomenclature of a map sheet consists of a row letter and a column number. For example, a sheet with Moscow is designated N- 37,

Map sheet at scale 1:500,000 is the fourth part of the map sheet 1: 1000,000 and is designated by the nomenclature of the millionth map sheet with the addition of one of the capital letters A, B, C, G of the Russian alphabet, indicating the corresponding quarter (Fig. 3). For example, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:500000 with the city of Ryazan has the nomenclatureN- 37-B.

Map sheet scale 1:200000 formed by dividing the millionth sheet into 36 parts (Fig. 3); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1000,000 with the addition of one of the Roman numerals 1, II, III, IV, . . .,XXXVI . For example, a sheet from the city of Ryazan has the nomenclatureN- 37-XVI

Rice. 3.Layout and nomenclature of map sheets at scale 1: 500,000 and I: 200,000

1:100,000 scale map sheet obtained by dividing a sheet of a million card into 144 parts (Fig. 4); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a map sheet of 1:1000,000 with the addition of one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 143, 144. For example, a sheet of a hundred thousandth map with the city of Ryazan will be ^-37-56.

A map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 is formed by dividing a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 into four parts (Fig. 5); its nomenclature consists of the nomenclature of the hundred thousandth card and one of the capital letters A, B, C, G of the Russian alphabet. For example,N -37-56-A. A map sheet at a scale of 1:25,000 is obtained by dividing a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 into four parts; nomenclature of its design

Section 1. Topographic and special maps

§ 1.1.1. Some information about the movement of celestial bodies

According to modern scientific concepts, the Universe, i.e. the entire surrounding world consists of billions of galaxies. In turn, each galaxy is a giant gravitationally bound system of stars and star clusters, interstellar gas and dust, and dark matter. Our solar system is part of the so-called Milky Way, a large spiral galaxy containing approximately 100 billion stars.

The solar system is a planetary system that includes the central star - the Sun - and all the natural space objects orbiting around it. The Sun is a typical star, belongs to the class of yellow dwarfs and consists mainly of hydrogen and helium. The average diameter of the Sun is 1.4 million kilometers (or 109 diameters of the Earth), the average mass is 2x10 30 kg (or 333,000 Earth masses), the surface temperature is about 6000 degrees C. Interesting fact: every second about 700 billion people burn on the Sun tons of hydrogen, however, despite such huge losses of matter, the star’s energy will last for another 5 billion years (about the same age for the Sun from birth).

There are 8 planets in the Solar System (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), they have circular orbits located within an almost flat disk - the ecliptic plane. The four inner planets (or terrestrial planets): Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are composed primarily of silicates and metals. The four outer planets (or gas giants): Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are largely composed of hydrogen and helium and are much more massive than the terrestrial planets. In addition to these planets, there are also dwarf planets in the solar system - Pluto, Eris, Ceres, Makemake and Haumea. Six of the eight planets and three dwarf planets are surrounded by natural satellites.

Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, the largest in diameter, mass and density among the terrestrial planets. The average distance from Earth to the Sun is 150 million kilometers - light travels it in 8 minutes (for comparison, the next closest star to Earth, Proxima Centauri, is four light years away).

The Earth formed from the Solar Nebula about 4.5 billion years ago. The mass of the Earth is about 6?10 24 kg, the average radius is 6,371 km. Life appeared on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, the planet's biosphere has significantly changed the atmosphere and other abiotic factors, causing a quantitative increase in aerobic organisms, as well as the formation of the ozone layer, which, together with the Earth's magnetic field, weakens harmful solar radiation, thereby maintaining conditions for life.

The Earth's crust is divided into several segments (or tectonic plates) that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. Approximately 71% of the planet's surface is occupied by the World Ocean, the rest is occupied by continents and islands. The Earth's interior is quite active and consists of a mantle (a thick, relatively solid layer of matter) that covers a liquid outer core (the source of the Earth's magnetic field) and an inner solid iron core.

The Earth revolves around the Sun and makes a complete revolution around it in approximately 365.26 solar days. The Earth's rotation axis is inclined by 23.4° relative to the perpendicular to its orbital plane, this causes seasonal changes on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days).

The Earth has only one natural satellite - the Moon - whose mass is approximately 7X10 22 kg, and the average radius is 1,737 km. The average distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon is 390,000 km. The Moon is the second brightest object in the Earth's sky after the Sun.

The study of lunar soil samples led to the creation of the Giant Impact theory: 4.36 billion years ago, the protoplanet Earth (Gaia) collided with the protoplanet Theia. The impact occurred at an angle, almost tangentially, as a result, most of the substance of the impacted object and part of the substance of the earth's mantle were thrown into near-Earth orbit and, united, formed the proto-Moon. As a result of the impact, the Earth received a sharp increase in rotation speed and a noticeable tilt of the rotation axis. The actual trajectory of the Moon's movement in space is quite complex and is determined by many factors: the oblateness of the Earth, the influence of the Sun, which attracts the Moon 2.2 times stronger than the Earth, etc. However, as a first approximation, we can assume that the Moon moves in an elliptical orbit relative to the Earth. It should be noted that the gravitational interaction of the Moon and the Earth causes tides, which, in turn, affect the speed of the Earth's own rotation.

There is a difference between the rotation of the Moon around its own axis and its revolution around the Earth: the Moon rotates around the Earth with a variable angular velocity, and around its own axis - uniformly. Interesting fact: although the Moon rotates around its own axis, it always faces the same side to the Earth, that is, the rotation of the Moon around the Earth and around its own axis is synchronized. The combination of these factors allows us to observe only about 59% of the lunar surface from Earth.

The angle between the Earth, Moon and Sun is constantly changing due to complex mutual motion. Since the Moon does not glow itself, but only reflects sunlight (the full Moon reflects only 7% of the sunlight falling on it), then only the part of the lunar surface illuminated by the Sun is visible from the Earth, the area of ​​which is constantly changing - this phenomenon underlies the cycle of lunar phases. The illuminated side of the Moon always points towards the Sun, even if it is hidden behind the horizon. The period of time between successive new moons is about 29.5 days.

To solve astrometric problems, the concept of the celestial sphere was introduced, i.e. an imaginary sphere of arbitrary radius onto which celestial bodies are projected. The eye of the observer is taken to be the center of the celestial sphere, and the observer can be located both on the surface of the Earth and at other points in space, for example, he can be referred to the center of the Earth. Each celestial body corresponds to a point on the celestial sphere at which it is intersected by a straight line connecting the center of the sphere with the center of the body. For a terrestrial observer, the rotation of the celestial sphere reproduces the daily movement of the luminaries in the sky. The areas into which the celestial sphere is divided for ease of orientation in the starry sky are called constellations.

Throughout world history, observers have identified different numbers of constellations. Until the 19th century, constellations were not understood as closed areas of the sky, but as groups of stars that often overlapped. It turned out that some stars belonged to two constellations at once, and some star-poor areas of the sky did not belong to any constellation at all. At the beginning of the 19th century, boundaries were drawn between the constellations, eliminating the “voids” between the constellations, but there was still no clear definition of them, and different astronomers defined them in their own way. In 1922, by decision of the International Astronomical Union, a list of 88 constellations into which the starry sky was divided was finally approved, and in 1928 clear and unambiguous boundaries between these constellations were adopted. Over the course of five years, clarifications were made to the boundaries of the constellations, and finally, in 1935, the boundaries were finally approved and will no longer change.

Of the 88 constellations, only 47 are ancient, known to Western civilization for several millennia. They are based mainly on the mythology of Ancient Greece and cover an area of ​​the sky that can be observed from southern Europe. The remaining modern constellations were introduced in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of studying the southern sky during the era of great geographical discoveries and filling the “empty spaces” in the northern sky. The names of these constellations, as a rule, do not have mythological roots. 12 constellations are traditionally called zodiacal - these are those through which the Sun passes (excluding the constellation Ophiuchus).

On the question of the origin of the name of our galaxy: since the Solar system is located inside a galactic disk filled with light-absorbing dust, the Milky Way in the night sky looks like a ragged strip of stars, reminiscent of clots of milk. In the northern hemisphere, the Milky Way crosses the constellations Eagle, Sagittarius, Chanterelle, Cygnus, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, Taurus and Gemini, and in the southern hemisphere - Unicorn, Puppis, Vela, Southern Cross, Compass, Southern Triangle, Scorpio and Sagittarius (in Sagittarius is the galactic center).

An important object in the celestial sphere of the northern hemisphere is the North Star (alpha Ursa Minor, or Kinosura), located at a distance of about 430 light years from Earth. In the present era, the North Star is located less than 1° from the North Celestial Pole, and therefore is almost motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky (the celestial pole is a point on the celestial sphere around which the apparent daily movement of stars occurs due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis) . Due to its location in the sky, the polar star is very convenient for orientation - the direction towards it practically coincides with the direction to the north, and its height above the horizon is equal to the geographic latitude of the observation site. There is no such bright polar star in the southern hemisphere.

In astronomy, the term “precession” is widely used, denoting the phenomenon in which the angular momentum of a body changes its direction in space under the influence of an external force. A similar movement is made by the Earth's rotation axis, and the full cycle of Earth's precession is about 26,000 years. Due to the precession of the earth's axis, the position of the North Pole is gradually changing. Therefore, at different times different stars become closest to the celestial pole. So, 5,000 years ago such a star was Alpha Draco; at the beginning of our era there were no bright stars at the celestial pole at all. In 2,000 years, the closest to the celestial pole will be gamma Cephei, and after 12,000 years - Vega (alpha Lyrae). As for the North Star, it will come closest to the celestial pole around 2100 - at a distance of approximately 30". Interesting fact: presumably, the periodic change in the Earth's climate is associated with precession.

§ 1.1.2. Earth's ellipsoid, main points and lines on it

In topography, the shape of planet Earth does not mean its physical surface with all its irregularities - lowlands, mountains, etc., but a certain imaginary surface of the oceans and open seas, mentally continued under all the continents. This imaginary surface of the average ocean level, as if covering the entire planet, is called level surface , and the figure of the Earth limited by this surface is the geoid (from the ancient Greek word “Gaia”, which means Earth).

In its shape, although the geoid is an irregular geometric figure, it differs very little from the ellipsoid of revolution - a regular geometric body formed by rotating an ellipse around its minor axis. Uniform dimensions of the earth's ellipsoid, generally accepted in all countries, have not yet been established. In the Russian Federation and in a number of other countries near and far abroad, Krasovsky’s ellipsoid is taken as the basis for creating topographic maps (F.N. Krasovsky is an outstanding Russian geodesist, under whose leadership data on the dimensions of the earth’s ellipsoid were obtained).

The ends of the earth's axis around which the earth's daily rotation occurs are called northern And southern geographic poles . The plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of our planet, passing through its center, is called plane of the earth's equator . This plane intersects the earth's surface in a circle called equator . The plane of the equator divides the Earth into northern And southern hemisphere . The lines of intersection of the earth's surface by planes parallel to the equatorial plane are called parallels , and the lines of intersection of the Earth’s surface with vertical planes passing through the earth’s axis – meridians (Fig. 1.1).

A grid formed by intersecting meridians and parallels is called geographic (cartographic, degree) grid .

§ 1.1.3. The concept of geographical coordinates

In order to uniquely determine the position of any arbitrary point on the earth's ellipsoid, so-called geographic coordinates were introduced.

Geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) - angular values ​​that determine the position of objects on the earth’s surface and on the map. They are divided into astronomical, obtained from astronomical observations, and geodetic, obtained from geodetic measurements on the earth's surface (geodesy is a science that studies the size and shape of the Earth, as well as its gravitational field).

Topographic maps use geodetic coordinates. In practice, when working with maps, they are usually called geographic. Geographic coordinates of a point M- this is its breadth IN and longitude L(Fig. 1.2).

Latitude (IN ) points - the angle formed by the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid passing through a given point. Latitudes are counted along the meridian arc from the equator to the poles from 0 to 90°; In the northern hemisphere, latitudes are called northern (positive), in the southern hemisphere - southern (negative).

Longitude (L ) points - the dihedral angle between the plane of the prime (Greenwich) meridian and the plane of the meridian of a given point. Longitude is calculated along the arc of the equator or parallel in both directions from the prime meridian, from 0 to 180°. The longitude of points located east of Greenwich to 180° is called eastern (positive), to the west - western (negative).

Interesting fact: The Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian of Zero Longitude is an imaginary line that conventionally connects the north and south poles of the globe. It was drawn through the courtyard of the Greenwich Royal Observatory and the territory of the adjacent park, and conditionally divides the globe into the eastern and western hemispheres. The decision to use the prime meridian as the origin of geographic longitude was made in 1983 at the Washington International Geographical Congress. In 1884, this meridian was marked in the courtyard area with a metal plate. Those who wish can always stand on this plate, or place the feet of both legs on either side of it, as if imagining at that moment that they have “saddled” both halves of the globe. In 1884, Greenwich Time was also established - English standard time, used in astronomy as universal or world time.

§ 1.1.4. Cartographic projections and geodetic basis of maps

From the course of stereometry (the section of geometry in which shapes in space are studied) it is known that spherical surfaces do not unfold on a plane without folds and breaks; accordingly, distortions of real lengths, angles, areas and shapes are inevitable on a two-dimensional map of the earth's ellipsoid. Therefore, when creating topographic maps, various cartographic projections are used (conformal, equal-area, conical, cylindrical, etc.), minimizing distortions of the outlines and sizes of objects depicted on it.

Rice. 1.3 6 degree Gaussian projection zone, unrolled into a flat sheet

A cartographic projection is a mathematical method of constructing a cartographic grid on a plane, on the basis of which the surface of the globe is depicted on a map.

In Russia, as well as in many foreign countries, the Gaussian conformal transverse cylindrical projection is used for topographic maps.

The essence of the transverse cylindrical Gaussian projection is that the Krasovsky ellipsoid is not depicted immediately, but in separate stripes - zones - 6° wide in longitude, stretching from the North Pole to the South Pole (Fig. 1.3).

Each zone, and there are 60 in total (360°/6°=60), is projected onto the inner lateral surface of an imaginary cylinder, which touches the ellipsoid along the middle meridian of the zone. By “rotating” Krasovsky’s ellipsoid around its axis, six-degree zones are projected sequentially one after another, then the surface of the cylinder is expanded into a plane.

As a result of these transformations, the designed zones will be depicted on a plane next to each other. They will touch each other only at one point - at the equator (Fig. 1.4).

Rice. 1.4 The principle of creating a topographic map

The boundaries of the zones are meridians with longitude divisible by 6. The zones are counted from the Greenwich meridian to the east and from the equator to the north or south. Within the zone, a kilometer grid is drawn, where vertical lines are parallel to the meridians, and horizontal lines are parallels.

The geodetic basis of topographic maps is made up of points of the state geodetic network. They are points on the earth's surface that are securely fixed and marked on the ground by special structures, the coordinates and heights of which are determined from geodetic measurements related to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid. Structures at geodetic points are wooden or metal towers (signals, pyramids); underneath them are concrete monoliths with a designated point, to which the coordinates and height of the point refer. In the USSR, heights were determined from the zero of the Kronstadt water gauge, referred to the average level of the Baltic Sea (Baltic height system).

Geodetic network is a system of geodetic points on the earth's surface, the relative positions of which are determined in a single coordinate system. Geodetic networks are divided into state and special. State geodetic networks serve as a planning and altitude basis for topographic surveys and mapping, the development of special geodetic networks, as well as for solving military and engineering problems requiring accurate measurements on the ground. Special geodetic networks are created on the basis of the state geodetic network. They are used by troops for topographic and geodetic reference of elements of the battle formation and determination of the position of targets.

Geodetic network, map projection And scale form the mathematical basis of the map.

§ 1.1.5. Classification and purpose of topographic maps

Geographic map– this is a reduced generalized image of the earth’s surface on a plane, built in a certain cartographic projection.

According to their content, geographic maps are divided into general geographical and special (thematic). On general geographical maps, all the main elements of the area are depicted with completeness, depending on the scale of the map, without specially highlighting any of them. Thematic maps display some terrain elements in greater detail or display special data not shown on general geographic maps. Special (thematic) maps include historical, economic, geological, road and others.

Topographic maps– these are general geographical maps at scales of 1:1000000 and larger, depicting the terrain in detail.

Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the area and are used to study it, determine distances and areas, directional angles, coordinates of various objects and solve other measurement problems. They are widely used in troop command and control, and also as a basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Topographic maps - mainly maps at scales 1:100000 and 1:200000 - serve as the main means of orientation on the march and in battle.

Topographic maps used by the troops are divided into large scale (1:25000, 1:50000), medium-scale (1:100000, 1:200000) and small-scale (1:500000, 1:1000000):

• a map at a scale of 1:25000 is intended for a detailed study of individual sections of the terrain (when crossing water barriers, landing and in other cases), making accurate measurements, as well as for calculations during the construction of military engineering structures and military facilities;
• maps of scale 1:50000 and 1:100000 are intended for a detailed study of the terrain and assessment of its tactical properties when planning and preparing combat operations, command and control of troops in battle, target designation and orientation on the battlefield, determining the coordinates of firing (starting) positions, reconnaissance equipment, targets and performing the necessary measurements and calculations;
• a 1:200,000 scale map is intended for studying and assessing the terrain when planning and preparing combat operations of all types of troops, commanding troops in an operation (battle), planning the movement of troops and orienting themselves on the terrain during a march;
• maps of scale 1:500000 and 1:1000000 for studying and assessing the general nature of the terrain during the preparation and conduct of operations, and are also used by aviation as flight maps.

§ 1.1.6. Symbols and card design

Conventional signs– graphic, alphabetic and numerical symbols, with the help of which the location of terrain objects is shown on the map and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics are conveyed.

Conventional signs can be scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory.

Scale (contour) marks are used to depict objects whose area can be expressed on a map scale. A scale mark consists of an outline (the external outline of an object, depicted by a solid line or a dotted line), within which the nature of the object is indicated by icons or color. The position of linear features (roads, power lines, borders, etc.) is depicted accurately on the map, but the width of some features increases significantly. For example, a conventional highway sign on a map at a scale of 1:100000 increases its width by 5-7 times.

Rice. 1.5
Position of the main points of off-scale symbols:

a – geometric center of the figure;

b – the middle of the base of the sign;

c – the vertex of a right angle at the base of the sign;

g – geometric center of the lower figure

Off-scale signs are used when depicting objects whose plan outline cannot be expressed on a map scale. The location of such objects is determined by the main point of the symbol (Fig. 1.5). The main points can be: the geometric center of the figure; the middle of the base of the sign; the apex of a right angle at the base of the sign; geometric center of the lower figure.

Explanatory signs are used to further characterize terrain objects and are represented by graphic icons, letter designations and abbreviated explanatory captions.

It should be remembered that:

• signatures of the names of local objects are given in different fonts, the size and style of which determine the nature of the object - the type of settlement, the transport significance of the river, etc.;
• forests, gardens, bush plantations and thickets are shown in green;
• hydrographic objects, as well as swamps, salt marshes, glaciers - in blue and white;
• relief elements and some types of soil - sands, rocky surfaces, pebbles - shades of brown;
• highways and highways, residential areas on maps of scale 1:25000 and 1:50000 with a predominance of fire-resistant buildings, and on maps of scale 1:100000 and 1:200000 with a population of 50 thousand inhabitants or more - in orange;
• improved dirt roads and residential areas with a predominance of non-fire-resistant buildings - yellow (with reduced color - light orange);
• the remaining elements of the card content are printed in black ink.

Conventional signs and a list of conventional abbreviations used on topographic maps are given in the appendices of this manual.

Map Sheet Frames . Topographic maps are published in separate sheets, limited by frames. The sides of the inner frames are lines of parallels and meridians, which are divided into segments equal in degrees to 1" on maps of scales 1:25000-1:200000 and 5" on maps of scales 1:500000 and 1:1000000. The segments every other are filled with black paint or shaded. Each minute segment on maps of scales 1:25000-1:100000 is divided by dots into six parts of 10". Recall that the basic unit of measure for measuring angles is the degree, with 1° = 60" ( minutes); 1"=60" (seconds).

Minute segments along the northern and southern sides of the frame of map sheets at a scale of 1:100000, located within latitudes of 60-76°, are divided into three parts of 20", and those located north of the 76° parallel - into two parts of 30".

The border design of a topographic map contains background information about a given map sheet; information supplementing the characteristics of the area; data that makes it easier to work with the map. The location of the border design elements of maps of scales 1:25000-1:500000 is shown in Fig. 1.6. In addition, on a map of scale 1:200000, to the right and left of the scale inscription there are symbols characterizing the cross-country ability of the area, and on the back of the sheet a soil diagram and information about the area are printed; on a map of scale 1:500000, to the right of the scale inscription there is a diagram of the location of adjacent sheets and a diagram of the administrative division, and to the left are the main symbols. Behind the eastern side of the sheet frame, additional information can be placed (about the geodetic basis, terrain passability, etc.), as well as symbols not provided for in the tables.

Location of card border elements

scales 1:25000-1:500000:

1 - coordinate system;

2 - the name of the republic and region, the territory of which is depicted on this map sheet;

3 - name of the department that prepared and issued the map;

4 - name of the most significant settlement;

5 - card neck;

6 - nomenclature of the map sheet (numeric and alphanumeric);

7 - year of publication of the map;

8 - year of survey or compilation and source materials on which the map was compiled;

9 - performers;

10 - placement scale;

11 - numerical scale;

12 - scale value;

13 - linear scale;

14 - section height;

15 - height system;

16 - diagram of the relative position of the vertical grid line, true and magnetic meridians; the magnitude of magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and direction correction;

17 - data on magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and annual changes in magnetic declination

§ 1.1.7. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps

Map layout - topographic maps are divided into separate sheets by lines of geographical meridians and parallels. For areas north of the 60° parallel, topographic maps of all scales are published in double longitude sheets, and north of the 76° parallel - in quadruple sheets, with the exception of a map of scale 1:200000, which is published in triple sheets.

Nomenclature of cards - system of designation (numbering) of individual sheets. For example, the nomenclature of topographic maps of the USSR was based on a map at a scale of 1:1000000.

Nomenclature of a map of scale 1:1000000(Fig. 1.7). The entire surface of the Earth is divided by parallels at 4° intervals into rows, and by meridians at 6° intervals into columns. The sides of the resulting trapezoids serve as the boundaries of map sheets at a scale of l:1000000. The rows are designated by capital Latin letters from A to V, starting from the equator to both poles, and the columns are designated by Arabic numerals, starting from the 180° meridian from west to east. The nomenclature of a map sheet consists of a row letter and a column number. For example, a sheet with the city of Moscow is designated N-37.

Rice. 1.7 Layout and nomenclature of map sheets at a scale of 1:1000000

Map sheet scale 1:500000 is the fourth part of the map sheet 1:1000000 and is designated by the nomenclature of the millionth map sheet with the addition of one of the capital letters A, B, C, G of the Russian alphabet, indicating the corresponding quarter (Fig. 1.8). For example, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:500000 with the city of Ryazan has the nomenclature N-37-B.

Rice. 1.8 Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps of scales 1:500000 and 1:200000

Map sheet scale 1:200000 formed by dividing the millionth sheet into 36 parts (Fig. 1.8); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1000000 with the addition of one of the Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, ..., XXXVI. For example, a sheet from Ryazan has the nomenclature N-37-XVI.

Map sheet scale 1:100000 obtained by dividing a sheet of a million card into 144 parts (Fig. 1.9); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a map sheet 1:1000000 with the addition of one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, .... 143, 144. For example, the nomenclature of a sheet of a hundred thousandth map from the city of Ryazan will be N-37-56.

Rice. 1.9 Layout and nomenclature of map sheets at a scale of 1:100000

Map sheet scale 1:50000 is formed by dividing a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100000 into four parts (Fig. 1.10); its nomenclature consists of the nomenclature of the hundred thousandth card and one of the capital letters A, B, IN, G Russian alphabet, for example N-37-56-A.

Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps of scales 1:50000 and 1:25000

Map sheet scale 1:25000 obtained by dividing a sheet of map at a scale of 1:50000 into four parts; its nomenclature is formed from the nomenclature of the fifty thousand card with the addition of one of the lowercase letters A, b, V, G Russian alphabet, for example N-37-56-A-b.

To the nomenclature of maps for the southern hemisphere, the letters Yu.P. are added in brackets, for example A-32-B (Yu.P.). The nomenclature of the double sheets of the millionth card consists of a capital Latin letter denoting a row, odd and subsequent even numbers denoting the two corresponding columns. For example, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1000000 for the Murmansk region has the nomenclature R-35, 36.

The nomenclature of double sheets of maps of other scales is formed in a similar way: a letter or number of the eastern sheet is added to the nomenclature of the western sheet, for example R-35-25,26.

The nomenclature of triple and quadruple sheets of cards is formed in the same way as double sheets, only the numbers or letters of the next two or three sheets are assigned to the nomenclature of the western sheet.

§ 1.1.8. Preparing the card for use

Preparing a map for use includes familiarizing yourself with the map (evaluating the map), gluing it, folding it, and lifting it.

Familiarization with the map consists in understanding its main characteristics: scale, height of the relief section, year of survey (composition), number and year of publication, amendments, direction.

According to the numerical scale, signed at the bottom of the map sheet, one can understand its size (how many meters or kilometers on the ground corresponds to 1 centimeter on the map) and the size of the side of the coordinate grid square in kilometers. In addition, they understand the accuracy, completeness and detail of the map.

Based on the height of the relief section, placed under the numerical scale of the map, the completeness and detail of the relief image, as well as the value of the steepness of the slope, corresponding to the distance between the horizontal lines of 1 mm, are determined.

The year of survey or compilation of the map based on source materials, indicated in the southeast corner of the sheet, makes it possible to understand the novelty of the map and possible changes in the area. The year of publication of the map is indicated in the northeast corner (on maps published before 1973 - under the sheet nomenclature).

The direction correction is taken from the text help or diagram placed in the southwest corner of the sheet. Direction correction is necessary if you are working with a map on the ground or moving along azimuths.

Gluing the card (Fig. 1.11). Before gluing, the card sheets are laid out according to nomenclatures. To speed up the layout of a large number of sheets, it is recommended to draw up a diagram of their location or use a prefabricated table, outlining the sheets to be glued on it. After this, they begin to trim the edges of the adjacent sheets: cut off the eastern edges (except for the sheets of the extreme right column) and southern ones (except for the bottom row). Trimming is done with a sharp knife or scissors exactly along the inner frame of the sheet. Using a knife, the map is usually cut without a ruler on a cardboard backing. It is recommended to trim some of the edges of adjacent sheets so that the gluing strip is no more than 2 cm.

First, the sheets are glued in rows or along columns in the direction where the strip is shorter, then the rows or columns are glued together. Gluing of sheets in columns begins from the bottom, and in rows - from the right.

When gluing cards, place the cut sheet with the reverse side on the adjacent uncut sheet and, bringing them together along the gluing line, apply a thin, uniform layer of glue to the gluing strip with a brush. Then, turning the top sheet over, combine the sheet frames, kilometer lines and corresponding contours. The gluing area is wiped with a dry cloth (paper), making a movement across the gluing line towards the cut. Minor misalignment can be corrected by rubbing in the opposite direction of the misalignment. Rows or columns are glued in the same order.

When gluing long strips (rows or columns), it is recommended to roll the strip with the cut edge, apply a layer of glue to its edge, then, gradually unwinding the roll, align and iron the strips to be glued.

Gluing the card

Folding the card. A map is an essential tool that requires careful and competent handling. The loss of a card or its deterioration (scuffs, loss of fragments, etc.) jeopardizes the completion of the task or makes it impossible. Therefore, before performing a task on the ground, the map must be prepared as follows: ensure that its packaging is waterproof, determine a safe place for storing and carrying it, and prepare the map for convenient work.

So, first of all, you need to find a closure for storing the card (currently, specialized stores offer a large selection of various transparent hermetically sealed bags, tablets, etc.). If you cannot find a factory-made closure, you can use a thick-walled transparent plastic bag. Then you should add the map (photo series 1.12 a-e).

In this case, the card is folded like an accordion in two directions: along the lower (upper) side of the sheet frame and in the perpendicular direction with the card fields necessarily protruding beyond the fold lines. The lines of the kilometer grid should approximately coincide with their numbering in any layout of the map. The size of the folded card must correspond to the size of the closure, and it is necessary to ensure visibility of the working area of ​​the card and its fields vertically and horizontally.

When developing skills in working with a map, it is important to strive to ensure that it is removed from the cap only when moving to a new area of ​​the terrain. In this case, the map is repositioned according to the algorithm described above so that the next working area of ​​the terrain is visible.

Raising the card used when it is necessary to more clearly show (highlight) local objects and relief elements that are important for solving a problem. Elements of the area are highlighted on the map with colored pencils by coloring, enlarging the symbol, underlining or enlarging the name signature.

Rivers, streams and canals are highlighted by thickening the lines and shading them in blue. The swamps are covered with blue shading lines parallel to the bottom (top) side of the map. Bridges, crossings, fords, roads, etc. raise the symbol by increasing the symbol with a black pencil. Local objects used for orientation, depicted by off-scale symbols, are circled in black.

The relief is raised by shading the vertices with a light brown color or thickening some horizontal lines and shading them downward. Forests, continuous shrubs and gardens are raised around the edges with a thickened line, which is tinted green. The roads are raised by drawing a thick brown line next to the symbol (below and to the right of it). Settlements are highlighted by underlining or enlarging the inscriptions of their names.